SEMINAR PRESENTATION ON NUTRITIVE AND CURATIVE EFFECTS OF SOME KNOWN SPICES BY CHINEDU J.

SEMINAR PRESENTATION ON NUTRITIVE AND CURATIVE EFFECTS OF SOME KNOWN SPICES BY CHINEDU J.E.   DEDICATION This work is dedicated to God Almighty for His wisdom and Guidance throughout this seminar work.   ACKNOWLEDGMENT I wish to express my profound gratitude to God Almighty who saw me throughout this research work. My honest gratitude goes to my wonderful supervisors, Mr. Onyemenonu Christopher and Mr. Kelechi Ubaka whose contributions and corrections as well as guidance helped me a lot in carrying out this research work. My sincere appreciation goes to the Head of Department, Dr. Ali Bilar Alex. I wish to express my joy and happiness to my wonderful parents for their moral and financial support and to my good friends Opara Prince Sokky, Nwachukwu Faith, Etimakan Christian and to those who also contributed in one way or the other to see to the success of this research work.   ABSTRACT This research work was carried out to determine the nutritive and curative effects of some known species, (thyme, ginger and garlic). Thyme is native to areas such as Asia, Southern Europe and Mediterranean region. Ginger is also produced in Jamaica, India, Fiji, Indonesia and Australia. Spices are nutritive and because of their nutritive and curative effects, they are very useful in the health sector for the treatments of many aliments such as ulcer. Also, ginger can be used to protect colorectal cancer and induces cell death in ovarian cancer cells. TABLE OF CONTENTS Title Page - - - - - - - - i Certification - - - - - - - - ii Dedication - - - - - - - - iii Acknowledgement - - - - - - - iv Abstract - - - - - - - - - v Table of Contents - - - - - - - vi CHAPTER ONE 1.0 Introduction - - - - - - - 1 1.1 Statement of Problems - - - - - 1 1.2 Scope of Study - - - - - - 2 1.3 Aims and Objectives - - - - - 2 CHAPTER TWO 2.0 Literature Review - - - - - - 3 2.1 Thyme (Thymus Vulgaris) - - - - 5 2.1.1 Health Benefits - - - - - - 7 2.1.2 Cultivated Areas - - - - - - 7 2.1.3 Nutritional Profile - - - - - - 8 2.1.4 How to Store and Select - - - - 8 2.1.5 Significant Anti-Oxidant Protection of Cellular Membranes - - - - - - - 9 2.2 Ginger - - - - - - - - 10 2.2.1 History - - - - - - - - 11 2.2.2 Individual Concerns - - - - - - 12 2.2.3 Health Benefits - - - - - - - 12 2.2.4 Gastrointestinal Relief - - - - - 13 2.2.5 Safe and Effective Relief of Nausea and Vomiting During Pregnancy - - - - - - 13 2.2.6 Anti-Inflammatory Effects - - - - 14 2.2.7 Protection against Colorectal Cancer - - 15 2.2.8 Ginger Induces Cell death in Ovarian Cancer Cell 17 2.2.9 Immune Boosting Action - - - - 18 2.2.10 How to select and store - - - - - 20 2.2.11 Tips for preparing ginger - - - - 21 2.3 Garlic (Allium sativum) - - - - - 21 2.3.1 Origin and major types - - - - - 21 2.3.2 Subspecies and varieties - - - - 22 2.3.3 Cultivation - - - - - - - 23 2.3.4 Production Trends - - - - - 24 2.3.5 Storage - - - - - - - 25 2.3.6 Culinary Uses- - - - - - - 26 2.3.7 Historical Uses - - - - - - 27 2.3.8 Medicinal Uses - - - - - - 28 2.3.9 Spiritual and religious uses - - - - 29 2.3.10 Other Uses - - - - - - - 29 2.3.11 Advertise Effects and Toxicology - - - 31 2.3.12 Other Properties ----- - - - - - 32 CHAPTER THREE 3.0 Conclusion - - - - - - - 35 3.1 Recommendation -- - - - - - 35 References - - - - - - - 36   CHAPTER ONE 2.0 INTRODUCTION Thyme is a herb with culinary, medicinal and ornamental uses. Thyme is of the genus thymus, most commonly thymus vulgaris. Thyme leaves are curled, elliptically shaped and very small measuring about one-eight of an inch long and one-sixteenth of an inch wide[1]. Ginger is the underground rhizome of the ginger plant with a firm, striated texture[2]. The flesh of the ginger rhizome can be yellow, white or red in color, depending upon the variety[3]. Garlic (Allium sativum) is a species in the onion genus, Allium. Allium sativum is a bulbous plant [4]. 1.1 STATEMENT OF PROBLEMS Many diseases plague man which man finds difficult in treating, therefore this research work is aimed at finding out simpler and easier ways through which man can cure himself by making use of available and less costly species. 1.2 SCOPE OF STUDY The purpose of this research work is to access the nutritional and curative effects of thyme, garlic and ginger to human beings or animals when taking them raw or when used for cooking. 1.3 AIMS AND OBJECTIVES The aim of this research work is to know or access the nutritive and curative effects of thyme, garlic and ginger.   CHAPTER TWO 2.0 LITERATURE REVIEW In ancient Greece, thyme was widely used for its aromatic qualities, being burned as incense in sacred temples. Thyme was also a symbol of courage and admiration with the phrase “the smell of thyme” being a saying that reflected praise unto its subject. Thyme’s association with bravery continued throughout medieval times when it was a ritual for women to give their knights a scarf that had a spring of thyme placed over an embroidered bee. Since the 16th century, thyme oil has been used for its antiseptic properties, both as mouth wash and a topical application. Thyme has been used since ancient times for its culinary, aromatic and medicinal agent to preserve their decreased pharaohs. The ancient Greeks used it in their baths and burnt it as incense in their temples, believing it was a source of courage. The stead of thyme throughout Europe was thought to be due to the Romans, as they used it to purify their rooms and to “give an aromatic flavour to cheese and liqueurs” [5]. Ginger has a long tradition of being very effective in alleviating symptoms of gastrointestinal distress. In herbal medicine, ginger is regarded as an excellent carminative (a substance which promotes the elimination of intestinal gas) and intestinal spasmolytic (a substance which relaxes and soothes the intestinal tract). Modern scientific research has revealed that ginger possesses numerous therapeutic properties including antioxidant effects, an ability to inhibit the formation of inflammatory compounds and direct anti-inflammatory effects [6]. Garlic close relatives include the onion, shallot, leek, chive [7] and rakkyo. With a history of human use of over 7,000 years, garlic is native to central Asia [8] and has long been a staple in the Mediterranean region, as ell as a frequent seasoning in Asia, Africa, and Europe. It was known to Ancient Egyptians, and has been used for both culinary and medicinal purposes[9]. 2.1 THYME (Thymus vulgaris) Thyme is a delicate looking herb with a penetrating fragrance, thyme is a wonderful addition to bean, egg and vegetable dishes. Both fresh and dried thyme is available in local supermarkets throughout the year. Thyme leaves are curled, elliptically shaped and very small, measuring about one-eight of an inch long and one-sixteenth of an inch wide. The upper leaf is green-grey in color on top, while the underside is a whitish color. Along with fresh springs of parsley and bay leaves, thyme is included in the French combination of herbs called bouquet garni used to season stock, stews and soups [10]. Thyme has about sixty different varieties including French (common) thyme, lemon thyme, orange thyme and silver thyme, this herb is sure to add some spice to your life. French thyme is known scientifically as Thymus vulgaris. Thyme is not a commonly allergenic food and is not known to contain measurable amount of oxalates or purines[11]. The volatile oil components of thyme have also been shown to have antimicrobial activity against a host of different bacteria and fungi. Staphylococcus aureus, bacillus subtilis, Escherichia coli and shigella sonnei are a few of the species against which thyme has been shown to have antibacterial activity. For thousands of years, herbs and spices have been used to help preserve foods and protect them from microbial contamination, now research shows that both thyme and basil contain constituents that can both prevent contamination and decontaminate previously contaminated foods. In 2004 researchers found that thyme essential oil was able to decontaminate lettuce inoculated with shigella, an infectious organism that triggers diarrhea and may cause significant intestinal damage. In addition, washing produce in solution containing either basil or thyme essential oil at the very low concentration of just 1% resulted in dropping the number of shigella bacteria below the point at which they could be defected. While scientists use this research to try to develop natural food preservatives, it makes good sense to include thyme and basil in more of your recipes, particularly for foods that are to cooked such as salads. Adding fresh thyme and/or basil to your next vinaigrette will not only enhance the flavour of your fresh greens, but will help ensure that the fresh produce you consume is safe to eat[12]. 2.1.1 HEALTH BENEFITS Thyme has a long history of use in natural medicine in connection with chest and respiratory problems including coughs, bronchitis and chest congestion. Only recently, however, have researchers pinpointed some of the components in thyme that bring about its healing effects. The volatile oil components of thyme are now known to include carvacolo, borneol, geraniol, but most importantly thymol[13]. 2.1.2 CULTIVATED AREAS Thyme is native to areas such as Asia, Southern Europe and the Mediterranean region and is also cultivated in North America. 2.1.3 NUTRITIONAL PROFILE Thyme is an excellent source of vitamin C. It is a very good source of vitamin A (in the form of Provitamin A carotenoid phytonutrients) as well as a good source of iron, manganese, copper and fiber. 2.1.4 HOW TO STORE AND SELECT Whenever possible, choose fresh thyme over the dried form of the herb since it is superior in flavour. The leaves of fresh thyme should look fresh and be a vibrant green gray in colour. They should be free from dark spots or yellowing. Even though dried herbs and spices like thyme are widely available in superior markets, you may want to explore the local spice store in your area. Often times, these stores feature an expensive selection of dried herbs and spices that are of superior quality and freshness compared to those offered in regular markets. Just like with other dried spices, when purchasing dried thyme, try to select that which is organically grown since this will give you more assurance that it has not been irradiated. Fresh thyme should be stored in the refrigerator wrapped in a slightly damp paper towel. Dried thyme should be kept in a tightly sealed glass container in a cool, dark and dry place where it will keep fresh for about six months. 2.1.5 SIGNIFICANT ANTI-OXIDANT PROTECTION OF CELLULAR MEMBRANES Thymol named after the herb itself is the primary volatile oil constituent of thyme, and its health-supporting effects are well documented. In studies on aging in rats, thymol has been found to protect and significantly increase the percentage of healthy fats found in cell membranes and other cell structures. In particular, the amount of DHA (docosahexaenoic acid, an omega – 3 fatty acid) in brain, kidney, and heart cell membranes was increased after dietary supplementation with thyme. In other studies looking more closely at changes in the brains cells themselves, researchers found that the maximum benefits of thyme occurred when the food was introduced very early in the lifecycle of the rats, but was less effective in offsetting the problems in brain cell aging when introduced late in the aging process. Thyme also contain a variety of flavonoids, including apigenin, naringenin, inteolin, and thymonin. These flavonoids increase thyme’s antioxidant capacity, and combined with its status as a good source of manganese, gives thyme a high standing on the list of antioxidant foods. 2.2 GINGER Ginger is the underground rhizome of the ginger plant with a firm, striated texture [14]. The flesh of the ginger rhizome can be yellow, white or red in color, depending upon the variety [15]. It is covered with a brownish skin that may either be thick or thin, depending upon whether the plant was harvested when it was mature or young. Ginger is aromatic, pungent and spicy, it adds a special flavour and zest to Asian stir fries and many fruit and vegetable dishes. Fresh ginger root is available year round in the produce section of our local markets. Ginger is botanically known as Zingiber officinale. The plant’s botanical name is thought to be derived from its Sanskrit name singabera which means “horn shaped,” a physical characteristic that ginger reflects [16]. 2.2.1 HISTORY Native to southeastern Asia, a region whose cuisines still feature this wonderfully spicy herb, ginger has been renowned for millennia in many areas throughout the world. Ginger is mentioned in ancient Chinese, Indian and Middle Eastern writings, and has long been prized for its aromatic, culinary and medicinal properties. After the ancient Romans imported ginger from China almost two thousand years ago, its popularity in Europe remained centered in the Mediterranean region until the Middle Ages when its use spread throughout other countries. Although it was a very expensive spice, owing to the fact that it had to be imported from Asia, it was still in great demand. In an attempt to make it more available, Spanish explorers introduced ginger to the west indies, Mexico and South America, and in the 16th century, these areas began exporting the precious herb back to Europe. Today, the top commercial producers of ginger include Jamaica, India, Fiji, Indonesia and Australia [17]. 2.2.2 INDIVIDUAL CONCERNS Ginger is not a commonly allergenic food and is not known to contain measurable amount of oxalates or purines [18]. 2.2.3 HEALTH BENEFITS Historically, ginger has a long tradition of being very effective in alleviating symptoms of gastrointestinal distress. In herbal medicine, ginger is regarded as an excellent carminative (a substance which promotes the elimination of intestinal gas) and intestinal spasmolytic (a substance which relaxes and soothes the intestinal tract). Modern scientific research has revealed that ginger possesses numerous therapeutic properties including antioxidant effects, an ability to inhibit the formation of inflammatory compounds, and direct-anti-inflammatory effects [19]. 2.2.4 GASTROINTESTINAL RELIEF A due to ginger’s success in eliminating gastrointestinal distress is offered by recent double-blind studies, which have demonstrated that ginger is very effective in preventing the symptoms of motion sickness especially seasickness. Infact, in one study, ginger was shown to be far superior to Dramamine, a commonly used over-the-counter and prescription drug for motion sickness. Ginger reduces all symptoms associated with motion sickness including dizziness, nausea, vomiting, and cold sweating [20]. 2.2.5 SAFE AND EFFECTIVE RELIEF OF NAUSEA AND VOMITING DURING PREGNANCY Ginger’s anti-vomiting action has been shown to be very useful in reducing the nausea and vomiting of pregnancy, even the most severe form, hyperemesis gravidarum, a condition which usually requires hospitalization. In a double-blind trial, ginger root brought about a significant reduction in both the severity of nausea and number of attacks of vomiting in 19 of 27 women in early pregnancy (less than 20 weeks). Unlike the anti vomiting drugs, which can severe birth defects, ginger is extremely safe, and only a small dose is required. Obstetrics and Gynecology has confirmed that ginger is effective in relieving the severity of nausea and vomiting during pregnancy. The review also confirmed the absence of significant side effects or adverse effects on pregnancy outcomes [21]. 2.2.6 ANTI-INFLAMMATORY EFFECTS Ginger contains very potent anti-inflammatory compounds called gingerols. These substances are believed to explain why so many people with osteoarthritis or rheumatoid arthritis experience reductions in their pain levels and improvements in their mobility when they consume ginger regularly. In two clinical studies involving patients who responded to conventional drugs and those who didn’t, physicians found that 75% of arthritis patients and 100% of patients with muscular discomfort experienced relief of pain and/or swelling.[22] Arthritis – related problems with your aging kness – regularly spicing up your meals with fresh ginger may help, suggests a study published in a recent issue of osteoarthritis cartilage. A study published in the November 2003 issue of life sciences suggests that at least one reason for ginger’s beneficial effects is the free radical protection afforded by one of its active phenolic constituents, 6 – gingerol. In this in vitro (test tube) study, 6 – gingerol was shown to significantly inhibit the production of nutric oxide, a highly reactive nitrogen molecule that quickly forms a very damaging free radical called peroxynitrite. Another study appearing in the November 2003 issue of Radiation Research found that in mice, five days treatment with ginger (10 mg per kilogram of body weight) prior to exposure to radiation not only prevented an increase in free radical damage of lipids (fats found in numerous bodily compounds from cell membranes to cholesterol), but also greatly lessened depletion of the animals stores of glutathione, one of the body’s most important internally produced antioxidant [23]. A study published in the February 2005 issue of the journal of Alternative and Complementary Medicine Sheds further light on the mechanisms of action that underlie ginger’s anti-inflammatory effectiveness. In this research, ginger was shown to suppress the pro-inflammatory compounds (cytokines and chemokines) produced by synoviocytes (cells comprising the synovial lining of the joints), chrondrocytes (cells comprising joint cartilage) and leukocytes (immune cells). 2.2.7 PROTECTION AGAINST COLORECTAL CANCER Gingerols, the main active components in ginger and the ones responsible for its distinctive flavor, may also inhibit the growth of human colorectal cancer cells, suggests research presented at the frontiers in cancer prevention research, a major meeting of cancer experts that took kplace in phoenix, AZ, October 26. n this study, researchers from the university of Minnesota’s Hormel Institute fed mice specially bred to lack an immune system a half milligram of (6 ) – gingerol three times a week before and after injecting human colorectal cancer cells into their flanks. Control nice received no (6) – gingerol. Tumors first appeared 15 days after the mice were injected, but only 4 tumors were found in the group of – gingerol – treated mice compared to 13 in the control mice, plus the tumors in the – gingerol group were smaller on average. Even by day 38, one mouse in the (6 ) – gingerol group still had no measurable tumors. By day 49, all the control mice had been euthanized since their tumors had grown to one cubic centimeter (0.06 cubic inch), while tumors in 12 of the (6) – gingerol treated mice still averaged 0.5 cubic centimeter – half the maximum tumor size allowed before euthanization. Research associate professor Ann Bode noted, “The results strongly suggest that ginger compounds may be effective chemopreventive and/or chemotherapeutic agent for colorectal carcinomas” [24]. 2.2.8 GINGER INDUCES CELL DEATH IN OVARIAN CANCER CELL Lab experiments presented at the 97th Annual meeting of the American Association for cancer, by Dr. Rebecca Lui and her colleagues from the university of Michigan, showed that gingerols, the active phytonutrients in ginger, kill ovarian cancer cells by inducing apoptosis (programmed cell death) and autophagocytosis (self – digestion). Ginger extracts have been shown to have both antroxidant, anti-inflammatory and anti-tumor effects on cells. To investigate the latter, Dr. Liu examined the effect of a whole ginger extract containing 5% gingerol on a number of different ovarian cancer cell lines. Exposure to the ginger extract caused cell death in all the ovarian cancer lines studied. A pro-inflammatory state is thought to be an important contributing factor. In the development of ovarian cancer in the presence of ginger, a number of key indicators of inflammation (vascular endothelial growth factor, interleukin – 8 and prostaglandin E.2) were also decreased in the ovarian cancer cells [25]. 2.2.9 IMMUNE BOOSTING ACTION Ginger can not only be warming on a cold day, but can help promote healthy sweating, which is often helpful during colds and flus. A good sweat may do a lot more than simply assist detoxification. German researchers have recently found out that sweat contains a potent germ-fighting agent that may help fight off infections. Investigators have isolated the gene responsible for the compound and the protein it produces, which they have named dermicidin. Dermicidin is manufactured in the body’s sweat glands, secreted into the sweat, and transported to the skin’s surface where it provides protection against invading microorganisms, including bacteria such as E.coli and staphylococcus aureus (a common cause of skin infections), and fungi, incuding candida albicans. Ginger is so concentrated with active substances, you don’t have to use very much to receive its beneficial effects. For nausea, ginger tea made by steeping one or two ½ inch slices (one ½ - inch slice equals 2/3 of an ounce) of fresh ginger in a cup of hot water will likely be all you need to settle your stomach. For arthritis, some people have found relief consuming as little as a ¼ - inch slice of fresh ginger cooked in food, although in the studies noted above, patients who consumed more ginger reported quicker and better relief. 2.2.10 HOW TO SELECT AND STORE Whenever possible, choose fresh ginger over the dried form of the spice since it is not only superior in flavour but contains higher levels of gingerol as well as ginger’s active protease (it’s anti-inflammatory compound). Fresh ginger root is sold in the produce section of markets. When purchasing fresh ginger root, make sure it is firm, smooth and free of mold. Ginger is generally available in two forms, either young or mature. Mature ginger, the more widely available type, has a tough skin that requires feeling while young ginger, usually only available in Asian markets, does not need to be peeled. Ginger is also available in several other forms including crystallized, candied and pickled ginger. Fresh ginger can be stored in the refrigerator for up to three weeks if it is left unpeeled. Stored unpeeled in the freezer, it will keep for up to six months. Dried ginger powder should be kept in a highly sealed glass container in a cool, dark and dry place, alternatively, you can store it in the refrigerator where it will enjoy an extended shelf life of about one year. 2.2.11 TIPS FOR PREPARING GINGER To remove the skin from fresh mature ginger, peel with a paring knife. The ginger can then be sliced, minced or julienned. The taste that ginger imparts to a dish depends upon when it is added during the cooking process. Added at the beginning, it will lend a subtler flavour while added near the end, it will deliver a more pungent taste. 2.3 GARLIC (Allium sativum) Allium sativum, commonly known as garlic is a bulbous plant. It grows up to 1.2m (4ft) in height. It produces hermaphrodite flowers. Pollination occurs by bees and other insects [26]. K The composition of the bulbs is approximately 84.09% water, 13.38% organic matter, and 1535 inorganic matter, while the leaves are 87.14% water, 11.27% organic matter, and 1.595 inorganic mater[27] [28]. 2.3.1 ORIGIN AND MAJOR TYPES “A difficulty in the identification of its wild progenitor is the sterility of the cultivars”, though it is thought to be descended from the species allium longicuspis, which grows wild in central and southwestern Asia.[29][30][31]. Alliu sativum (Garlic) grows in the wild in areas where it has become naturalized. The “wild garlic”, “grow garlic”, and “field garlic” of Britain are members of the species Allium Ursinum, Allnium vineale, and Allium oleraceum, respectively. In north America, Allium vineale (known as “wild garlic” or “Grow garlic) and Allium canadense, known as “meadow garlic” or “wild garlic” and “wild onion”, are common weeds in fields. [32] One of the best known “garlics”, the so-called elephant garlic, is actually a wild leek (Allium ampeloprasum), and not a true garlic. Single clove garlic (also called pearl or solo garlic) originated in the yumnan province of china. 2.3.2 SUBSPECIES AND VARIETIES There are two subspecies of A. sativum, [33] ten major groups of varieties, and hundreds of varieties or cultivator [34]. (i) A. Sativum var. ophioscorodon (link) Dou, called ophioscorodon, or hard necked garlic, includes porcelain garlics, rocambole garlic, and purple stripe garlic. It is sometimes considered to be a separate species, Allium ophioscorodon G. Don. (ii) A. sativum var. sativum, or soft-necked garlic, includes artichoke garlic, silverskin garlic, and creole garlic. 2.3.3 CULTIVATION Garlic is easy to grow and can be grown year round in mild climates. While sexual propagation of garlic is indeed possible, nearly all of the garlic in cultivation is propagated asexually, by planting individual cloves in the ground [35]. In cold climates, cloves are planted in the autumn, about six weeks before the soil freezes, and harvested in late spring. The cloves must be planted at sufficient depth to prevent freeze/thaw which causes mold or white root. [36]. Two of the major pathogens that attack garlic are ner\matodes and white rot disease, which remain in the soil indefinitely after the ground has become infected [37]. Garlic also can suffer from pink rot, a typically nonfatal disease that stunts the roots and turns them pink or red. [38]. Garlic plants can be grown closely together, leaving enough space for the bulbs to mature, and are easily grown in containers of sufficient depth. Garlic does well in loose, dry, well drained soils in sunny locations, and is hardly throughout USDA climate zones 4 – 9. Garlic plants prefer to grow in a soil with a high organic material content, but are capable of growing in a wide range of soil conditions and PH levels. Hardneck garlic is generally grown in cooler climates; soft neck garlic is generally grown closer to the equator. [39][40]. 2.3.4 PRODUCTION TRENDS Garlic is grown globally, but China is by far the largest producer of garlic, with approximately 10.5 million tones (23 billion pounds) grown annually accounting for over 77% of world output. India (4.1%) and South Korea (2%) follow, with Egypt and Russia (1.6%) tied in fourth place and the United States (where garlic is grown in every state except for Alaska) in sixth place (1.4%) [41]. This leaves 16% of global garlic production in countries that each produce less than 2% of global output. Much of the garlic production in the United States is centered in Gilroy, California, which calls itself the “garlic capital of the world”[42]. 2.3.5 STORAGE Domestically, garlic is stored warm [above 180C (640F)] and dry to keep it dormant (lest it sprout). it is traditionally hung; softneck varieties are often braided in strands called plaits or grappes. Peeled cloves may be stored in wine or vinegar in the refrigerator [43]. Commercially, garlic is stored at 00C (320F), in a dry, low-humidity environment [44]. Garlic will keep longer if the tops remain attached. [45]. Garlic is often kept in oil to produce flavoured oil; however, the practice requires measures to be taken to prevent the garlic from spoiling. Untreated garlic kept in oil can support the growth of clostridium botulinum which causes the deadly botulism illness. According to Wikihow, the garlic immersed in oil should be stored in the freezer and not the fridge [46]. Manufacturers add acids and/or other chemicals to eliminate the risk of botulism in their products. [47]. Two outbreaks of botulism related to garlic stored in oil have been reported. [48] [49]. Garlic bulbs should be clean and white with a dried neck and outer skin and quite firm under pressure. They should be discarded if they are soft or spongy or show signs of mould. 2.3.6 CULINARY USES The garlic plant’s bulb is the most commonly used part of the plant. With the exception of the single clove types, garlic bulbs are normally divided into numerous fleshy sections called cloves. Garlic cloves are used for consumption (raw or cooked) or for medicinal purposes. They have a characteristics pungent, spicy flavour that mellows and sweetens considerably with cooking [50]. Other parts of the garlic plant are also edible. The leaves and flowers (bulbils) on the head (spathe) are sometimes eaten. They are milder in flavour than the bulbs, [51] and are most often consumed while immature and still tender. Inedible or rarely eaten parts of the garlic plant include the “skin” over various parts of the plant are generally discarded during preparation for most culinary uses, though in Korea immature while heads are sometimes prepared with the tender skins intact. [52]. In some cuisines, the young bulbs are picked for three to six weeks in a mixture of sugar, salt, and spices. In Eastern Europe, the shoots are picked and eaten as an appetizer. Laba garlic, prepared by soaking garlic in vinegar, is a type of pickled garlic severed with dumplings in northern china to celebrate the Chinese new year [53]. 2.3.7 HISTORICAL USES Garlic has been sued as both food and medicine in many cultures for thousands of years, dating at least as far back as when the Giza pyramids were built. Garlic is still grown in Egypt, but the Syrian variety is the kind most esteemed now. Hippocrates, Galen, Pliny the Elder, and Dioscorides allmention the use of garlic for many conditions, including parasites, respiratory problems, poor digestion, and low energy. Its use in China dates back to 2000 BCE. [54]. Early in the 20th century, it was sometimes used in the treatment of pulmonary tuberculosis or phthisis. Garlic was rare in traditional English cuisine (though it is said to have been grown in England before 1548) and has been a much more common ingredient in Mediterranean Europe. Garlic was placed by the ancient Greeks on the files of stones at crossroads, as a supper for Hecate (Theophrastus, Characters, the superstitious man). A similar practice of hanging garlic, lemon and red chili at the door or in a ship to ward off potential evil, is still very common in India [55]. According to Pliny, garlic and onions were invoked as deities by the Egyptians at the taking of oaths. (Pliny also stated garlic demagnetizes codestones, which is not factual)[56]. The inhabitants of pelusium, in lower Egypt (who worshiped the onion), are said to have had an aversion to both onions and garlic as food. 2.3.8 MEDICINAL USES Allium sativum (garlic) has been found to reduce platelete aggregation [57] [58] [59] and hyperlipidemia [60] [61] [62] indicating that consuming it is contraindicated for patients taking blood-thinning medications [63]. Some studies found garlic supplementation reduced accumulation of cholesterol on the vascular walls of animals, [64] and humans [65] [66] [67]. Although claimed to help prevent and treat the common cold, a review failed to find reliable evidence for its effectiveness [68]. Garlic has a long history of use in practices of folk medicine, [69’ and remains under study in the field of alternative medicine. The Cherokee used it as an expectorant for coughs and croup[70]. It was used as an antiseptic to prevent gangrene during World War I and World War II [71]. 2.3.9 SPIRITUAL AND RELIGIOUS USES Garlic has been regarded as a force for both good and evil. In Europe, many cultures have used garlic for protection or white magic, perhaps owing to its reputation as a potent preventive medicine. Central European folk beliefs considered garlic a powerful ward against demons, werewolves, and vampires. To ward off vampires, garlic could be worm, hung in windows, or rubbed on chimneys and keyholes [72]73]. In Islam, it is forbidden for Muslims who have eaten raw garlic to pray in a mosque, since the odor could distract other Muslims during their prayer [74]. The prophet Muhammed himself dislike eating garlic [75]. However, Muslims are allowed to eat garlic by cooking it first until the smell from the garlic dries out[77]. In some Buddhist traditions, garlic along with the other fire “pungent spices”, is understood to stimulate sexual and aggressive drives to the detriment of meditation practice[77]. 2.3.10 OTHER USES The sticky juice within the bulb cloves is used as an adhesive in mending glass and porcelain [78]. An environmentally benign garlic drives polysulfide product is approved for use in the European Union (under Annex 1 of 91/4/4) and the UK as a nematicide and insecticide, including for use for control of cabbage root fly and red mite in poultry [79]. Garlic along with cinnamon is used as a fish and meat preservative, and displays antimicrobial property at temperatures as high as 120 degree Celsius; the combination can also be used to preserve fried and deep fried foods, and in the future might be used in an inner layer of plastic [80] [81] [82] [83] [84]. 2.3.11 ADVERTISE EFFECTS AND TOXICOLOGY Garlic is known for causing bad breath (halitosis), as well as causing sweat to have a pungent “garlicky” smell, which is caused by allyl methyl sulfide (AMS). AMS is a volatile liquid which is absorbed into the blood during the metabolism of garlic-derived sulfur compounds: from the blood it travels to the lungs [85] (and from there to the mouth, causing bad breadth; see garlic breath) and skin, where it is exuded through skin pores. Washing the skin with soap is only a partial and imperfect solution to the smell. Studies have shown sipping milk at the same time as consuming garlic can significantly neutralize bad breath[86]. Mixing garlic with milk in the mouth before swallowing reduced the odor better than drinking milk afterward. Garlic reduces platelet aggregation (as does aspirin), [87] indicating that consuming high quantities of garlic and garlic supplements may cause an increased risk of bleeding, particularly during pregnancy, after surgery or during childbirth. [88] [89]. Alliums might be toxic to cats or dogs [90]. Garlic may interact with warefarin, antiplatelets, sequinavir, antihypertensives, calcium channel blockers, quinolone family of antibiotics such as ciprofloxacin, and hypoglycemic drugs, as well as other medications [91] [92]. 2.3.12 OTHER PROPERTIES The well-known phenomenon of “garlic breath” is allegedly alleviated by eating fresh parsley [93]. The herb is, therefore, included in many garlic recipes, such as piston, persillade, and the garlic butter spread used in garlic bread. However, since the odor results mainly from digestive processes placing compounds such as AMS in the blood, and AMS is then released through the lungs over the course of many hours, eating parsley provides only a temporary masking. One way of accelerating the release of AMS from the body is the use of a sauna. Because of the AMS in the blood-stream, it is believed by some to act as a mosquito repellent, but no clinically reported evidence suggests it is actually effective [94]. A large number of sulfur compounds contribute to the smell and taste of garlic. Allicin has been found to be the compound most responsible for the “hot” sensation of raw garlic. This chemical opens thermo-transient receipt potential channels that are responsible for the burning sense of heat in foods. The process of cooking garlic removes allicin, thus mellowing its spiciness [95]. Allicin, along with its decomposition products diallyl disulfide and diallyl trisulfide, are major contributors to the characteristic odor of garlic, while other allicin-derived compounds, such as vinyldithins and ajoene show beneficial in vitro biological activity [96]. Because of its strong odor, garlic is sometimes called the “stinking rose”. When eaten in quantity, garlic may be strongly evident in the dinner’s sweat and garlic breath the following day. This is because garlic’s strong-smelling sulfur compounds are metabolized, forming allyl methyl sulfide. Allyl methyl sulfide (AMS) cannot be digested and is passed into the blood. It is carried to the lungs and the skin, where it is excreted. Since digestion takes several hours more, the effect of eating garlic may be present for a long time [97]. Abundant sulfur compounds in garlic are also responsible for turning garlic green or blue during pickling and cooking. Under these conditions (i.e. acidity, heat) the sulfur – containing compound allunase react with common amino acids to make pyrroles, clusters of carbon – nitrogen rings [98] [99]. These rings can be linked together into polypyrrole molecules. Ring structures absorb particular wavelengths of lights and thus appear colored. The two-pyrrole molecule looks red, the three pyrrole molecule looks blue and the four – pyrrole molecule looks green (like chlorophyll, a tetrapyrrole). Like chlorophyll, the pyrrole pigments are safe to eat[100].   CHAPTER THREE 3.0 CONCLUSION Spices are nutritionally beneficial to man because of their vitamins and health benefits e.g. thyme is an excellent source of vitamin C and very good source of vitamin A, also a good source of iron, fiber and manganese etc. Ginger is not an allergenic food and it is not known to contain measurable amount of oxalates or purines. 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