research and its types

Identify two researchable problems

Researchable problems imply the possibility of empirical investigation. the two researchable problems are:

1. What are the achievement and social skill differences between children attending an academically or socially oriented pre-school program?
2. What is the relationship between teachers' knowledge of assessment methods and their use of them?

Formulate the researcher’s problem

 5 Ways to Formulate the Research Problem

1. Specify the Research Objectives

A clear statement of objectives will help you develop effective research.

It will help the decision makers evaluate your project. It’s critical that you have manageable objectives. (Two or three clear goals will help to keep your research project focused and relevant.)

2. Review the Environment or Context of the Research Problem

As a marketing researcher, you must work closely with your team. This will help you determine whether the findings of your project will produce enough information to be worth the cost.

In order to do this, you have to identify the environmental variables that will affect the research project.

3. Explore the Nature of the Problem

Research problems range from simple to complex, depending on the number of variables and the nature of their relationship.

If you understand the nature of the problem as a researcher, you will be able to better develop a solution for the problem.

To help you understand all dimensions, you might want to consider focus groups of consumers, sales people, managers, or professionals to provide what is sometimes much needed insight.

4. Define the Variable Relationships

Marketing plans often focus on creating a sequence of behaviors that occur over time, as in the adoption of a new package design, or the introduction of a new product.

Such programs create a commitment to follow some behavioral pattern in the future.

Studying such a process involves:

• Determining which variables affect the solution to the problem.
• Determining the degree to which each variable can be controlled.
• Determining the functional relationships between the variables and which variables are critical to the solution of the problem.

During the problem formulation stage, you will want to generate and consider as many courses of action and variable relationships as possible.

5. The Consequences of Alternative Courses of Action

There are always consequences to any course of action. Anticipating and communicating the possible outcomes of various courses of action is a primary responsibility in the research process.

State a researchable problem

Two ways of stating the problem

1. Research problems: typically a rather general overview of the problem with just enough information about the scope and purpose of the study to provide an initial understanding of the research
2. Research statements and/or questions: more specific, focused statements and questions that communicate in greater detail the nature of the study
3. Examples
1. General research problem
1. The purpose of this study is to investigate the attitudes of high school students to mandated drug testing programs
2. Statements and questions
1. This study examines the differences between males' and females' attitudes toward mandated high school drug testing programs.
2. What are the differences between freshmen, sophomore, junior, and senior students' attitudes toward mandated high school drug testing programs?

State hypothesis

  Hypotheses

1. Hypotheses are tentative statements of the expected relationships between two or more variables
1. There is a significant positive relationship between self-concept and math achievement
2. The class using math manipulatives will show significantly higher levels of math achievement than the class using a traditional algorithm approach
2. Reasons for using hypotheses
1. Provides specific focus
2. Provides for testing of the relationships between variables
3. Directs the investigation
4. Allows the investigator to confirm or not confirm relationships
5. Provides a framework for reporting the results and explanations deriving from them
6. When supported provides empirical evidence of the predictive nature of the relationships between variables
7. Provides a useful framework for organizing and summarizing the results and conclusions
3. Types of hypotheses
1. Inductive and deductive
1. Inductive hypotheses are formed through inductively reasoning from many specific observations to tentative explanations
2. Deductive hypotheses are formed through deductively reasoning implications of theory

4.      Identifying a Research Problem–––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––

5.      We often think we understand problems when we don’t. For example, when students encounter difficulties with word problems in math, teachers may initially think that students have not mastered the basic skills that would allow them to carry out the needed computations . However, the difficulty may actually lie in poor reading skills, which prevent the students from identifying the words in math problems.

6.      As another example, when students do not hand in homework assignments or participate in class, some might be inclined to think that the students are not moti­vated. While there may be motivational issues, motivation may not be the only factor. A high school student may have an evening job that demands considerable time and energy. A younger student may be trying desperately to camouflage poor or nonexistent skills. In some cases, the chosen instructional strategy may not be well matched to the student’s cognitive or attention level. Therefore, it is crucial that researchers accurately identify the problem they want to study.

7.      What Is a Research Problem?

8.      A research problem, or phenomenon as it might be called in many forms of qualitative research, is the topic you would like to address, investigate, or study, whether descriptively or experimentally. It is the focus or reason for engaging in your research. It is typically a topic, phenomenon, or challenge that you are inter­ested in and with which you are at least somewhat familiar.

9.      Where Do You Find a Problem orPhenomenon to Study?

10.  Since a research problem is usually something you have some knowledge of, that personal experience is often a good starting point. Realistically, you have to select something that you are interested in, because you are going to commit yourself to a significant investment of time and energy. Thus, if you are not personally interested, it will be difficult to sustain the effort needed to complete the research with any measure of quality or validity. You may want to talk to teachers, counselors, admin­istrators, psychologists, or others about some of the problems they face. For exam­ple, your ideas may come out of experiences like Johnny’s shout outs, Madeline’s reading rate, or Esmerelda’s trouble with math that were discussed in Chapter 1. You may find an interesting idea that way and, in addition, address something that may have social significance beyond your research project, thesis, or dissertation. Moreover, by addressing the questions of practicing educators, you may develop important relationships with future research partners and participants.

11.  Narrowing or Clarifying Your Problem Focus

12.  A problem statement such as “Students can’t read,” is not clear because many aspects of reading, including discrete reading skills and strategies, may contribute to reading difficulties. Alternatively, “Students cannot find the main ideas in read­ing passages,” is much clearer and potentially much easier to measure and address, since one can define main idea and determine student performance related to this behavior in a number of ways.

13.  So whether in the classroom, the physician’s office, or the mechanic’s shop, defining or diagnosing a problem is key to designing and implementing effective interventions to address it. Without adequately defining the problem, researchers may find themselves going off on a “goose chase” to tackle a vague phenomenon, trying to deal with symptoms rather than root causes, and wasting time, becoming frustrated, or even making the actual problem worse.

14.  Later in this chapter, you will read about the use of standardized test scores for entrance to undergraduate or graduate school as an example research topic. While that may be a good topic, it is not well defined; it needs to be narrowed by thinking about the kind of information that the researcher wants to find out. Whether you are interested in the kinds of tests that are used, the average cutoff scores, or the degree to which scores predict college grade point average, as examples, a topic has to be specific enough to be clearly defined and yield helpful results from a later literature search.

15.  ––––––––––––––––––––––––––Identifying a Possible Research Question

16.  After you have narrowed down your topic or problem, searching and reviewing existing literature may further clarify your research approach. Moreover, by identifying where the conclusions of previous research are unclear or where gaps may exist in the literature, you will be better prepared to write good research questions.

17.  What Is a Research Question?

18.  A research question is a way of expressing your interest in a problem or phenomenon. Research questions are not necessarily an attempt to answer the many philosophical questions that often arise in schools, and they are certainly not intended to be an avenue for grinding personal axes regarding classroom or school issues. You may have more than one research question for a study, depending on the complexity and breadth of your proposed work. Each ques­tion should be clear and specific, refer to the problem or phenomenon, reflect 24

19.  Writing a Hypothesis

20.  A research hypothesis essentially is a declarative statement of how you expect the research to turn out. In a way, it is a possible answer to your research question.

21.  Table 2.1 Examples and Nonexamples of Good Research Questions

22.   

Examples	Nonexamples
Do students in Algebra I classes who engage in the XYZ curriculum perform significantly differently on state tests than students who do not participate in that curriculum? This one is good. It is specific and clear. One knows who the participants will be, and one knows that student performance on state tests is the problem.	Why do students seem so apathetic? This is not specific or clear, nor does it reflect an intervention, if one is planned, or a target group of participants. Better questions might be: Are science students more engaged in class discussions when a response strategy is used (experimental)? What are the reasons for apathy among various groups of high school students (descriptive)?
Do general education teachers evaluate student homework differently than special education teachers, based on five criteria? Assuming this is descriptive research, the problem is evident, the target participants are noted, and the question is pretty clear.	Does computer practice improve state test scores? Even though an intervention is mentioned and a way of measuring performance is implied (i.e., state test scores), the problem and target group are unclear.
Does the use of metacognitive strategies predict reading performance on standardized tests for immigrant Chinese children? This one is clear and quite specific, notes the target participants, and nicely alludes to the variables that will be studied.	What strategies improve student understanding of main ideas in history texts? The problem is pretty clear, but the target group is not. In addition, there is no specific reference to an intervention, important if this will be experimental research. If this will be descriptive research, on the other hand, that is moot.

23.  an intervention in experimental work, and note the target population or par­ticipants (see Figure 2.1). Identifying a research question will provide greater focus to your research or clarify the direction of your investigation, whether the research is descriptive or experimental. Quite significantly, a well-written research question will also shed light on appropriate research methods (e.g., specify the intended actions of the variables and how an experimental inter­vention might be measured).

24.  Characteristics and Examples of Good Research Questions

25.  Given the characteristics of good research questions noted in Figure 2.1, let’s take a look at some examples, and nonexamples, of good research questions. Table 2.1 illustrates a few of each type and includes explanations of why a researcher would categorize them as one or the other.

26.  Here are some additional examples of good experimental research questions from existing literature:

27.  Will the use of the Self-Regulated Strategy Development model for written ••expression improve the composition skills of students with ADHD (Reid & Lienemann, 2006)?

28.  Would students in classrooms of teachers receiving professional develop­••ment in early literacy skills show greater gains in cognitive development when compared to those in control classrooms (Landry, Swank, Smith, Assel, & Gunnewig, 2006)?

29.  Would a combined repeated reading and question generation intervention ••improve the reading achievement of fourth- through eighth-grade students with learning disabilities or who are at risk for reading failure (Therrien, Wickstrom, & Jones, 2006)?

1. Research problems
1. The need to communicate what will be studied in clear, concise, and unambiguous terms
2. One or more sentences indicating the goal, purpose, or overall direction of the study
3. General characteristics
1. Implies the possibility of empirical investigation
2. Identifies a need for the research
3. Provides focus
4. Provides a concise overview of the research
4. Two ways of stating the problem
1. Research problems: typically a rather general overview of the problem with just enough information about the scope and purpose of the study to provide an initial understanding of the research
2. Research statements and/or questions: more specific, focused statements and questions that communicate in greater detail the nature of the study
3. Examples
1. General research problem
1. The purpose of this study is to investigate the attitudes of high school students to mandated drug testing programs
2. Statements and questions
1. This study examines the differences between males' and females' attitudes toward mandated high school drug testing programs.
2. What are the differences between freshmen, sophomore, junior, and senior students' attitudes toward mandated high school drug testing programs?
5. Researchable and non-researchable problems
1. Researchable problems imply the possibility of empirical investigation
1. What are the achievement and social skill differences between children attending an academically or socially oriented pre-school program?
2. What is the relationship between teachers' knowledge of assessment methods and their use of them?
2. Non-researchable problems include explanations of how to do something, vague propositions, and value-based concerns
1. Is democracy a good form of government?
2. Should values clarification be taught in public schools?
3. Can crime be prevented?
4. Should physical education classes be dropped from the high school curriculum?
6. Comparing quantitative and qualitative research problems
1. Quantitative problems
1. Specific
2. Closed
3. Static
4. Outcome oriented
5. Use of variables
2. Qualitative problems
1. General
2. Open
3. Evolving
4. Process oriented
7. Sources of research problems
1. Casual observation
1. The relationships between the cognitive and affective realms
2. The effect of positive and negative reinforcement
2. Deductions from theory
1. Use of math manipulatives
2. Learning and instructional style congruence
3. Related literature
1. The use of math manipulatives in secondary schools
2. The comparison of state and national dropout profiles
4. Current social and political issues
1. Gender and race equity
2. Inclusion policies
5. Practical situations
1. Evaluating a specific instructional program
2. Evaluating a specific school restructuring effort
6. Personal interests and experience
1. Teaching statistics from an applied perspective
2. Effectiveness of non-threatening classroom assessments
7. Replication of previous studies
1. Checking the findings of a major study
2. Checking the validity of research findings with different subjects
3. Checking trends or changes over time
4. Checking important findings using different methodologies
8. Clarification of contradictory research results
2. Quantitative research problems
1. Three types of questions
1. Descriptive
2. Relational
3. Causal
2. Identifies specifically the type of research, the variables and relationships between them, and the subjects
3. Variables
1. A variable is a label or name that represents a concept or characteristic that varies (e.g., gender, weight, achievement, attitudes toward inclusion, etc.)
2. Conceptual and operational definitions of variables
1. Conceptual (i.e., constitutive) definition uses words or concepts to define a variable
1. Achievement: what one has learned from formal instruction
2. Aptitude: one's capability for performing a particular task or skill
2. Operational definition is an indication of the meaning of a variable through the specification of the manner by which it is measured, categorized, or controlled
1. Weschler IQ score
2. Income levels below and above $45,000 per year
3. Use of holistic or phonetic language instruction
3. Types of variables
1. Three variable labels defined by the context within which the variable is discussed
1. Independent and dependent variables
2. Extraneous and confounding variables
3. Continuous and categorical variables
2. Independent and dependent (i.e., cause and effect)
1. Independent variables act as the "cause" in that they precede, influence, and predict the dependent variable
2. Dependent variables act as the effect in that they change as a result of being influenced by an independent variable
3. Examples
1. The effect of two instructional approaches (independent variable) on student achievement (dependent variable)
2. The use of SAT scores (independent variable) to predict freshman grade point averages (dependent variable)
4. Some situations do not lend themselves to the use of the terms independent or dependent because it is difficult to discuss them in causal terms
1. The relationship between attitude and achievement, that is, do positive attitudes cause high achievement or does high achievement cause positive attitudes?
2. The relationship between creativity and critical thinking, that is, do high levels of creativity cause higher levels of critical thinking or do higher levels of critical thinking cause greater creativity?
3. Extraneous and confounding variables
1. Extraneous variables are those that affect the dependent variable but are not controlled adequately by the researcher
1. Not controlling for the socio-economic status of students involved in a study of the effects of instructional technologies
2. Not controlling for the key-boarding skills of students in a study of computer-assisted instruction
2. Confounding variables are those that vary systematically with the independent variable and exert influence of the dependent variable
1. Not using counselors with similar levels of experience in a study comparing the effectiveness of two counseling approaches
2. Not using the same test to measure the effectiveness of two instructional approaches
4. Continuous and categorical
1. Continuous variables are measured on a scale that theoretically can take on an infinite number of values
1. Test scores range from a low of 0 to a high of 100
2. Attitude scales that range from very negative at 0 to very positive at 5
3. Students' ages
2. Categorical variables are measured and assigned to groups on the basis of specific characteristics
1. Examples
1. Gender: male and female
2. Grade level: K-12
3. Socio-economic status: low, middle, and high
2. The term level is used to discuss the groups or categories

1.      Gender has two levels - male and female

2.      Socio-economic status has three levels - low, middle, and high

                        Continuous variables can be converted to categorical variables, but categorical variables cannot be converted to continuous variables

                        IQ is a continuous variable, but the researcher can choose to group students into three levels based on IQ scores - low is below a score of 84, middle is between 85 and 115, and high is above 116

                        Test scores are continuous, but teachers typically assign letter grades on a ten point scale (i.e., at or below 59 is an F, 60 to 69 is a D, 70 to 79 is a C, 80-89 is a B, and 90 to 100 is an A

                        Hypotheses

                        Hypotheses are tentative statements of the expected relationships between two or more variables

                        There is a significant positive relationship between self-concept and math achievement

                        The class using math manipulatives will show significantly higher levels of math achievement than the class using a traditional algorithm approach

                        Reasons for using hypotheses

                        Provides specific focus

                        Provides for testing of the relationships between variables

                        Directs the investigation

                        Allows the investigator to confirm or not confirm relationships

                        Provides a framework for reporting the results and explanations deriving from them

                        When supported provides empirical evidence of the predictive nature of the relationships between variables

                        Provides a useful framework for organizing and summarizing the results and conclusions

                        Types of hypotheses

                        Inductive and deductive

                        Inductive hypotheses are formed through inductively reasoning from many specific observations to tentative explanations

                        Deductive hypotheses are formed through deductively reasoning implications of theory

                        Research or statistical

                        Research hypotheses are conjectural statements of the expected results

                        Directional: a specific outcome is anticipated (e.g., the class using manipulatives will demonstrate higher achievement levels than the class using a traditional instructional approach)

                        Non-directional: an outcome is anticipated but the specific nature of it is unsure (e.g., there will be achievement differences between the groups of children using co-operative group strategies or individualized instruction)

                        Statistical hypotheses are statements of a relationship or difference that can be tested statistically

                        Null hypothesis: a statistical statement that no difference or relationship exists

                                                                                                                                 .            This is purely statistical in nature

                                                                                                                                                        i.            This does not represent the outcome anticipated by the researcher

                        See Table 2.2 for examples of research problems, research hypotheses, and null hypotheses as well as the relationships among them

                        Criteria for evaluating research hypotheses

                        Stated in declarative form

                        Consistent with known facts, prior research, or theory

                        Logical extension of the research problem

                        States an expected relationship between two or more variables

                        Can be tested

                        Is clear and concise

                        Criteria for evaluating quantitative research problems

                        Problem is researchable

                        Problem is important

                        Problem should indicate the type of research

                        Problem specifies the population being investigated

                        Problem specifies the variables and the relationships between or among them

                        Qualitative research problems

                        Identifies a central phenomena (i.e., an issue or process) being investigated

                        Examples of issues

                        Drug abuse in high schools

                        Teacher burnout

                        Alienation of children with special needs

                        Examples of processes

                        How teachers change to a standards-based curriculum

                        How students react to high stakes testing programs

                        How students incorporate teachers' expectations into their studies

                        Characteristics

                        Includes a single, central phenomena

                        Open-ended

                        General in nature

                        Evolving, that is, problems change as data is collected and reflected upon

                        Foreshadowed problems

                        Emerging and reformulated questions

                        Neutral with respect to what will be learned

                        No predictions

                        No expected outcomes

                        Criteria for evaluating qualitative research problems

                        The problem should not be too general or too specific

                        The problem should be amenable to change as data are collected and analyzed

                        The problem should not be biased with restrictive assumptions or desired findings

                        The problem should be written in "how" and "what" forms to focus on describing the phenomena

                        The problem should include a central question as well as the participants and the site

                        What is central phenomena for participants at research site?