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seminar on INSECTICIDES AND ITS EFFECTS ON THE ENVIRONMENT

Organized by chinedu j. INSECTICIDES AND ITS EFFECTS ON THE ENVIRONMENT WRITTEN BY OGWUEGBU CHIOMA 12/0272/ST NWANERI IJEOMA H. 12/0273/ST A SEMINAR RESEARCH SUBMITTED TO THE DEPARTMENT OF SCIENCE LABORATORY TECHNOLOGY, SCHOOL OF INDUSTRIAL AND APPLIED SCIENCE, FEDERAL POLYTECHNIC NEKEDE OWERRI SUPERVISED BY DR. ALI BILAR ALEX IN PARTIAL FULFILLMENT OF THE REQUIREMENTS FOR THE AWARD OF NATIONAL DIPLOMA (ND) IN SCIENCE LABORATORY TECHNOLOGY. JANUARY 2015 CERTIFICATION This seminar has been read and approved for the department of Science Laboratory Technology, School of Industrial and Applied Science, Federal Polytechnic Nekede Owerri, Imo State. BY …………………………………… ……………………………. DR. ALI BILAR ALEX DATE (Supervisor) …………………………………… ……………………………. DR. ALI BILAR ALEX DATE (H.O.D.)   DEDICATION This seminar work is dedicated to God Almighty for His guidance and protection throughout these years of our academic predicament. This seminar work is also dedicated to the entire student of Science Technology Department (Chemistry).   ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS We wish to acknowledge our competent and humble supervisor Dr. Ali Bilar Alex for assisting us from all angles towards the successfulness of our seminar work. We also feel indebted to all our lecturers in Science Laboratory Technology and our able Head of Department Dr. Alex A.B. for their immense support both morally and academic towards our academic pursuit. We also appreciate the efforts of our friends, colleagues and the entire students of Science Laboratory Technology who contributed in one way or the other for this achievement. May Almighty God continue to guide them towards their future endeavour. We finally, express our extraordinary appreciations to our beloved parents/guardians Mr. & Mrs. Onyeanuna Ogwuegbu and Mr. & Mrs. Innocent Nwaneri for their numerous supports, financially and otherwise which constituted our major source of sustenance up to this level of academic achievement. TABLE OF CONTENTS Title Page - - - - - - - - i Dedication - - - - - - - - ii Acknowledgement - - - - - - - iii Table of Contents - - - - - - - iv CHAPTER ONE 1.0 Introduction - - - - - - - 1 1.1 Classification of Insecticides - - - - 3 1.2 Statement of problems - - - - - - 9 1.3 Aim - - - - - - - - - 11 1.4 Objectives - - - - - - - 11 CHAPTER TWO 2.0 Literature Review - - - - - - -13 CHAPTER THREE 3.0 Environmental effects of insecticides 3.1 Effects on non target species - - - - 22 3.1.1 Air - - - - - - - - - 22 3.1.2 Soil - - - - - - - - - 24 3.1.3 Water - - - - - - - - 22 3.1.4 Effect on plants - - - - - - 26 3.1.5 Effect on animals - - - - - - 27 3.1.6 Aquatic life - - - - - - - 28 3.1.7 Humans - - - - - - - - 29 CHAPTER FOUR 4.0 Conclusion and Recommendations 4.1 Conclusion - - - - - - - 32 4.2 Recommendations - - - - - - 33 References - - - - - - - 34   CHAPTER ONE 1.0 INTRODUCTION Insecticides are chemicals used to control insects by killing them or preventing them from engaging in behaviours deemed undesirable or destructive. Insecticide is also seen as any toxic substance that is used to kill insects. They include ovicides and Larvicides used against insect eggs and larvae respectively. Such substances are used primarily to control pests that infest cultivated plants or to eliminate disease – carrying insects in specific areas. Insecticides are commonly used in agriculture, public health and industrial applications, as well as household and commercial uses (e.g. control of roaches and termites). Insecticides are claimed to be a major factor behind the increase of agricultural 20th century’s productivity. Nearly all insecticides have the potential to significantly alter ecosystems; many are toxic to humans; some concentrate along the food chain. Insecticides can be classified in different ways: on the basis of their chemistry, their toxicological action or their mode of penetration (action). Many insecticides act upon the nervous system of the insect (e.g. cholinesterase (ChE) inhibition) while others act as growth regulators or endotoxins. Insecticides are applied in various formulations and delivery systems (e.g. sprays, baits, slow-release diffusion) that influence their transport and chemical transformation. Mobilization of insecticides can occur via run off (either dissolved or sorbed to soil particles), atmospheric deposition (primary spray drift) or sub-surface flow. Soil erosion from high intensity agriculture, facilitates the transport of insecticides into water bodies. Insecticides are designed to be lethal to insects, so they pose a particular risk to aquatic insects, but they also affect other aquatic invertebrates and fish.   1.1 CLASSIFICATION OF INSECTICIDES Insecticides can be classified in different ways: • Systemic insecticides are incorporated by treated plants. Insects ingest the insecticide while feeding on the plants. • Contact insecticides are toxic to insects when brought into direct contact. Efficacy is often related to the quality of pesticide application, with small droplets often improving performance. • Natural insecticides such as nicotine, pyrethrum and neem extracts are made by plants as defenses against insects. • Plant-incorporated protectants (PIPs) are systemic insecticides produced by transgenic plants. For instance, a gene that codes for a specific Baccilus thuringinsis biocidal protein was introduced into corn and other species. The plant manufactures the protein which kills the insect when consumed. • In organic insecticides are contact insecticides that is manufactured with metals and include arsenates, copper, and fluorine compounds, which are now seldom used, and sulfur, which is commonly used. • Organic insecticides are contact insecticides that comprise the largest numbers of insecticides available for use today. Insecticides are also classified based on their mode of action. Insecticide type and their modes of action Insecticide type Mode of Action 1 Organochlorine Most act on neurons by causing a sodium/potassium imbalance preventing normal transmission of nerve impulses while some act on the GABA (y-aminobutyric acid) receptor preventing chloride ions from entering the neutrons causing a hyperexcitable state characterized by tremors and convulsions; usually broad-spectrum insecticides that have been taken out of use.   Insecticide type Mode of Action 2 Organophosphate Cause acetylcholinesterase (AChE) inhibition and accumulation of acetylcholine at neuromuscular junctions causing rapid twitching of voluntary muscles and eventually paralysis; broad-range insecticides, generally the most toxic of all pesticides to vertebrates. 3 Organosulphur Exhibit ovicidal activity (i.e. they kill the egg stage); used only against mites with very low toxicity to other organisms.   Insecticide type Mode of Action 4 Carbamates Cause acetylcholinesterase (AchE) inhibition causing central nervous system effects (i.e. rapid twitching of voluntary muscles and eventually paralysis), very broad spectrum toxicity and highly toxic to fish. 5 Formamidines Inibit the enzyme monoamine oxidase that degrades neurotransmitters causing an accumulation of these compounds; affected insects become quiescent and die, used in the control of OP and carbamate resistant pests.   Insecticide type Mode of Action 6 Pyrethroids Acts by keeping open the sodium channels in euronal membranes affecting both the peripheral and central nervous system causing a hyper-excitable state causing such symptoms as tremors, incordination, hyperactivity and paralysis; effective against most agricultural insect pests; extremecy toxic to fish. 7 Nicotinoids Act on the central nervous system causing irreversible blockage of the postsynaptic nicotinergic acetylcholine receptors; used in the control of sucking insects, soil insects, whiteflues termites, turf insects and the Colorado potato beetle; have generally low toxicity to mammals, birds and fish.   Insecticide type Mode of Action 8 Organotins Inhibit phosphorylation at the site of dinitrophenol uncoupling, preventing the formation of ATP, used extensively against mites on fruit trees, formerly used as an antifouling agent and molluscacide; very toxic to aquatic life. 9 Antibiotics Act by blocking the neurotransmitter GABA at the neuromuscular junction, feeding and egg laying stop shortly after exposure while death may take several days; most promising use of these materials is the control of spider mites, leafminers and other difficult to control greenhouse pests. 10 Spinosyns Acts by disrupting bindiong of acetylcholine in nicotinic acetylcholine receptors at the postsynaptic cell, effective against caterpillars, lepidopteran larvae, leaf miners, thrips and termites, regarded for its high level of specificity 1.2 STATEMENT OF PROBLEMS Insecticides can be found almost in all natural habitats, having severe negative effects on natural flora and fauna, biodiversity, water resources and ecosystems, including the equilibrium of agroecosystems. Dependence on insecticides is driven by global agribusiness, which promotes a chemical based solution for food production and pest management in an urban, non agricultural setting, in which powerful corporations are able to control how food is produced and influence policies at a local, national and international level There are economically viable alternatives to insecticides, and pesticide based food systems are not necessarily needed to feed the world’s population. Most insecticides will have an effect on some beneficial insects: predators and parasitoids (parasites that kill their hosts) of insect pests and pollinators. Insecticides may affect higher levels of the food chain since insects are a major food source for many vertebrate species such as birds and reptiles. Any insect in the upper crop canopy at the time of spraying will be exposed to a potentially lethal dose of insecticide at the time of application, depending on insect species and insecticide. Insects such as foraging honey bees entering treated canola fields at flower can be harmed if re-entry occurs shortly after application (El Hasani et al, 2008). The mortality of beneficial insects is an important consideration when spraying complex ecosystems such as forests or perennial agricultural crops that are established over a period of years. Insecticide applications made to agricultural monocultures once within a growing season may not result in long term suppression of beneficial insect populations. Repopulation can occur from untreated fields, roadsides, forage fields and other unsprayed areas. Most insects are not injurious, and, ideally, an insecticide that affects only the target species should be employed. The abundance and diversity of beneficial arthropods is very high in most ecosystems. The abundance of arthropod predators in Uganda and Democratic Republic of Congo listed by Munyuli (2006) includes, Coccinellidae, Staphylinidae, Syrphidae, Anthocoridae, Mantidae, Dermaptera, ground beetle, predatory mite, lygaeid bugs, Anthocoridae, dragonflies and spiders. In a study of alfalfa insects in southern Alberta, Harper (1988) reported that only 15 % of about 400 arthropod species (including mites, spiders and insects were considered to be crop pests; the rest had a beneficial impact to the crop and to the farmer. 1.3 AIM The aim of this study is to study insecticides and its effects to the environment. 1.4 OBJECTIVES (1) The long-term objective of this seminar work is to develop an improved understanding of what insecticides are. (2) To know the classification of insecticide on various basis. (3) To update the available scientific knowledge on the effects and mitigation of insecticides on non-target species and the environment.   CHAPTER TWO 2.0 LITERATURE REVIEW The mode of action of pesticides is a highly complex subject covering many fields, such as biology and chemistry and has many practical implications. Since the Second World War, many synthetic pesticides, such as DDT, have been introduced. At that time, the knowledge of the biochemical and physiological processes in organisms was not sufficiently clear to make it possible for us to understand properly either the mode of action of the insecticides at the target site or their uptake, distribution or degradation in the environment (Stenersen, 2004). Nowadays, we have better knowledge of how nerve impulses are transmitted, how plants synthesize amino acids, and how fungi invade plant tissue: however, in spite of all this knowledge, textbooks “do not tell us where and why pesticides interfere with the normal processes” (Stenersen, 2004). Concerns over the environmental and human health impacts of chemical control of locusts and grasshoppers have led to considerable interest in developing “mycoinsecticides based on entomopathogenic fungi” (Arthur et al., 2002). Although, these products provide effective control of the pests, they also affect host feeding, fecundity and mobility and potential recycling of the fungus to new generations of insects through horizontal transmission. It is generally recognized that natural enemies play an important role in regulating pest populations. The most severe constraint to realizing the potential of natural enemies in field crops is disruption through the widespread use of insecticides with broad toxicity to both pest and their natural enemies. (Naranjo et al, 2002) Traditionally, measuring the acute toxicity of pesticides to beneficial insects has relied largely on the determination of an acute median lethal dose or concentration (Desneux et al, 2007); however, this approach does not take into account indirect effects induced by pesticides. There are other con sequences, such as sublethal effects on the physiology and behavior of beneficial and natural enemies that must be taken into consideration. Floate et al., (1989), conducted a study of insects found in wheat in Saskatchewan and round that insecticides differed significantly n their contact and residual toxicity on carabid beetle predators of the wheat midge, when applied at maximum recommended field rates. Deltamethrin, the least toxic insecticide, caused approximately 30% mortality in the carabid predators, however its residual toxicity on the soil remained constant for one week Carbofuran and chlorpyrifos, the most toxic contact sprays, caused 83 to 100% mortality. The residual toxicity of carbofuran after one week declined significantly, whereas chiorpyrifos remained high. A spatio-temporal model to study effects of contamination and biological impact of pesticides on non target invertebrates was developed by Jepson (1989). The chronological sequence starts with exposure and uptake. This can have direct and indirect components such as the direct exposure to and uptake of droplets of pesticides at the time of spraying and subsequent indirect exposure via contact with surface residues or ingestion of contaminated pray. Next, the effects of the pesticide may be direct, via lethal or sublethal toxic action, or indirect, through depletion of food resources. The last phase corresponds to a recovery stage, where the population returns to its original densities within the treated area. The non target impact of deltamethrin, a broad spectrum pyrethroid insecticide on insects of maize, was studied by Badji et al., (2006). By spraying insecticide on the canopy of the crop to control fall armyworm, the main pest of maize in the tropics, the chemical inevitably reaches the soil affecting epigeic arthropods. These arthropods have important roles in structuring tropical agro-ecosystems, since they have an important role in the soil accumulation of organic matter, the action of decomposer microorganisms, soil structure and nutrient cycling, incidence of soil nernatodes and fungal plant diseases, as well as encouraging plant root development. A similar study conducted by Wiktelius et al., in 1999 to assess the effects of the organochiorine insecticide lindane on non target organisms in African maize agroecosystems. They concluded that lindane reduced the number of Coliembola in over 80%, ants were reduced by 64% and spiders were reduced by 53%. Another finding was that lindane significantly reduced organic matter breakdown in over 45% of the trials. Another study on the predatory fauna in cornfields and response to neonicotinoid seed treatment was conducted by Aibajes et al., (2003). Application of the insecticide imidacloprid as a seed dressing is a common practice to prevent the damage by certain species of rootworms. Imidacloprid is a nitromethylene derivate with a mode of action-similar to that of nicotine, acting on the postsynaptic membranes of insects. It has a systemic action in plants and contact toxicity. After studying the effects of this insecticide for a period of five years, the authors reported little or no difference in yield between treated and untreated crops. They concluded that a combination of removal of predators and herbivores in the treated plots and control of herbivores by predators in the untreated plot explained their results. Therefore, the cost was not compensated by the benefits, adding only the negative effects on the environment and natural enemies. The study, also, reported the integrated effects of the chemical seed dressing on predators because these may be affected through different pathways: 1. Direct exposure of soil fauna to the insecticide, 2. Eating contaminated prey or sucking phloem from plant, 3. The consequence of depriving predators of their prey, 4. The seed dressing may affect the facultative predators through direct ingestion of the insecticide or metabolites from pollen or plant tissue. In temperate ecosystems in particular, carabid, staphylinid beetles and spiders are important for their biomass, diversity and their quality as predators of phytophagous organisms. Above ground applications of pesticides affects sensitive components of the soil ecosystem in arable areas (Everts et al., 1989). Dixon & McKiniay (1992), studied the effect of insecticide-treated arid untreated potatoes on the pitfall trap catches of aphids. They reported significant increases in trap catches of beetles (natural predators of aphids) in treated plots than in the controls; they speculated that insecticides cause a decrease in the aphid (prey) population, invoking an increase in hungry, active beetles more likely to fail into pitfall traps. Hungry carabid beetles, they concluded, are more active than satiated ones. Grant (1989) monitored the insecticide side effects of tsetse fly spraying in Africa. Some of his findings were that many terrestrial and aquatic insects suffer from sublethal effects. Insects dislodged to the ground or carried downstream can not be characterized as mortality. Similarly, tens of thousands of disoriented aquatic larvae and nymphs enter the drift for a few hours after spraying but only some of them will re-attach themselves, recover and reach maturity. Many insects will be lost to predation and drowning during recovery from the toxic chemical. The complete picture of insecticide impact on non target populations must take into account individual recovery, not least because ecosystem recovery is partly dependent upon it. Migratory locusts invade crops of Madagascar and require applications of insecticides over several thousands of square kilometers where non target arthropods can be affected. One of the insecticides used by Peveling et al., (1999) was the organophosphate fenitrothion, which caused medium to long term population declines of more than 75% of epigeal non target insect taxa, such as springtails and ants. The insecticide also impacted non target grasshoppers, reducing them by 50 to 60%. The authors proposed an integrated control approach adapted to the particular conservation priorities of the area, keeping in mind that the least toxic or hazardous product is not always the most environmentally safe. The concept that pest control should be based on economic as well as ecological considerations is a pervasive force in integrated pest management (Naranjo et al., 2002). The literature provides plenty of evidence of insecticide effects on non target species. Since there is more than direct mortality induced by pesticides on beneficial insects, Desneux et al., (2007) listed the sublethal effects of pesticides on community ecology. CHAPTER THREE 3.0 ENVIRONMENTAL EFFECTS OF INSECTICIDES 3.1 EFFECTS ON NON TARGET SPECIES Some insecticides kill or harm other creatures in addition to those they are intended to kill. For example, birds may be poisoned when they eat food that was recently sprayed with insecticides or when they mistake an insecticide granule on the ground for food and eat it. Sprayed insecticide may drift from the area to which it is applied and into wildlife areas, especially when it is sprayed aerially. 3.1.1 AIR Insecticides can contribute to air pollution. Insecticide drift occurs when insecticides suspended in the air as particles are carried by wind to other areas, potentially contaminating them. Insecticides that are applied to crops can volatilize and may be blown by winds into nearby areas, potentially posing a threat to wildlife. Weather conditions at the time of application as well as temperature and relative humidity change the spread of the insecticide in the air. As wind velocity increases so does the spray drift and exposure. Low relative humidity and high temperature result in more spray evaporating. The amount of inhalable insecticides in the outdoor environment is there for often dependent on the season. Also, droplets of sprayed insecticides or particles from insecticides applied as dusts may travel on the wind to other areas, or pesticides may adhere to particles that blow in the wind, such as dust particles. Ground spraying produces less insecticide drift than aerial spraying does. Insecticides that are sprayed on to fields and used to fumigate soil can give off chemicals called volatile organic compounds, which can react with other chemicals and form a pollutant called tropospheric ozone. Insecticide use accounts for 6 percent of total tropospheric ozone levels. 3.1.2 SOIL Many of the chemicals used in insecticides are persistent soil contaminants, whose impact may endure for decade and adversely affect soil conservation. The use of pesticides decreases the general biodiversity in the soil. Not using the chemicals results in higher soil quality, with the additional effect that more organic matter in the soil allows for higher water retention. This helps increase yields for farms in drought years, when organic farms have had yields 20 – 40% higher than their conventional counterparts. A smaller content of organic matter in the soil increases the amount of insecticide that will leave the area of application, because organic matter binds to and helps break down insecticides. Degradation and sorption are both factors which influence the persistence of insecticides in soil. Depending on the chemical nature of the insecticide, such processes control directly the transportation from soil to water, and in turn to air and our food. 3.1.3 WATER Insecticides are found to pollute stream and over 90% of wells samples in a study by the Geological survey. Insecticide residues have also been found in rain and groundwater studies showed that insecticide concentrations exceeded those allowable for drinking water in some samples of river water and ground water. Insecticide impacts on aquatic systems are often studied using a hydrology transport model to study movement and state of chemicals in rivers and streams. As early as the 1970s quantitative analysis of insecticide runoff was conducted in order to predict amounts of insecticide that would reach surface water. There are four major routes through which insecticides reach the water; it may drift outside of the intended area when it is sprayed, it may percolate or leach through the soil, it may be carried to the water as runoff, or it may be spilled. 3.1.4 EFFECT ON PLANTS Nitrogen fixation, which is required for the growth of higher plants, is hindered by insecticides in the soil. The insecticides DDT, methyl parathion and especially pentachlorophenol have been shown to interfere with legume-rhizobium chemical signaling. Reduction of these symbiotic chemical signaling results in reduced nitrogen fixation and thus reduced crop yields. Insecticides can kill bees and are strongly implicated in pollinator decline, the loss of species that pollinate plants including through the mechanism of colony collapse disorder (CCD), in which worker bees from a beehive or western honey bee colony abruptly disappear. Loss of pollinators means a reduction in crop yields. Sublethal doses of insecticides (i.e. imidacloprid and other neonicotinoids) affect bee foraging behaviour. On the other side, insecticides have some direct harmful effect on plant including poor root hair development, shoot yellowing and reduced plant growth. 3.1.5 EFFECT ON ANIMALS Many kinds of animals are harmed by pesticides, leading many countries to regulate insecticide usage through biodiversity Action Plans. Animals including humans may be poisoned by insecticide residues that remain on food, for example when animals enter sprayed fields or nearby areas shortly after spraying. Insecticides can eliminate some animals’ essential food sources, causing the animals to relocate, change their diet or starve. Residues can travel up the food chain, for example birds can be harmed when they eat insects and worms that have consumed insecticides., some insecticides can bioaccumulate, or build up to toxic levels in the bodies of organisms that consume them over time, a phenomenon that impacts species high on the food chain especially hard. 3.1.6 AQUATIC LIFE Fish and other aquatic biota may be harmed by insecticide contaminated water. Insecticides are typically more toxic to aquatic life. Insecticide surface runoff into rivers and streams can be highly lethal to aquatic life, sometimes killing all the fish in a particular stream. Application of insecticides to bodies of water can cause fish kills when the dead plants decay and consume the water’s oxygen, suffocating the fish. Repeated exposure to sublethal doses of some insecticides can cause physiological and behavioral changes that reduce fish populations, such as abandonment of nests and broods, decreased immunity to disease and decreased predator avoidance. Insecticides can accumulate in bodies of water to levels that kill off 200 plankton, the main source of food for young fish. Insecticides kill off insects on which some fish feed, causing the fish to travel farther in search of food and exposing them to greater risk from predators. The faster a given insecticide breaks down in the environment, the less threat it poses to aquatic life. 3.1.7 HUMANS Insecticides can enter the body through inhalation of aerosols, dust and vapour that contain insecticides, through oral exposure by consuming food/water, and through skin exposure by direct contact. Insecticides secrete into soils and gourd water which can end up in drinking water and insecticide spray can drift and pollute the air. The effects of insecticides on human health depend on the toxicity of the chemical and the lengthy and magnitude of exposure. Farm workers and their families experience the greatest exposure to agricultural pesticides through direct contact. Every human contains insecticides in their fat cells. Children are more susceptible and sensitive to insecticides, because they are still developing and have a weaker immune system than adults.’ Children may be more exposed due to their closer proximity to the ground and tendency to put unfamiliar objects in their mouth. Toxic residue in food may contribute to a child’s exposure. The chemical can bioaccumulate in the body over time. Exposure effects can range from mild skin irritation to birth defects, tumors, genetic changes, blood and nerve disorders, endocrine disruption, coma or death. Developmental effects have been associated with insect ides. Recent increases in childhood cancers in throughout North America such as leukemia, may be a result of somatic cell mutations. Insecticides targeted to disrupt insects can have harmful effect on mammalian nervous systems. Both chronic and acute alternations have been observed in exposes. DDT and its breakdown product DDE disturb estrogenic activity and possibly lead to breast cancer. Fetal DDT exposure reduces male penis size in animals and can produce undescended testicles. Insecticide can affect fetuses in early stages of development, in utero and even if a parent was exposed before conception. Reproductive disruption has the potential to occur by chemical reactivity and through structural changes.   CHAPTER FOUR 4.0 CONCLUSION AND RECOMMENDATIONS 4.1 CONCLUSION Because of the problems associated with the heavy use of some chemical insecticides, current insect-control practice combines their use with biological methods in an approach called INTEGRATED CONTROL. In this approach, a minimal use of insecticide may be combined with the use of pest-resistant crop varieties, the use of crop raising methods that inhibit pest proliferation, the release of organisms that are predators or parasites of the pest species, and the disruption of the pest’s reproduction by the release of sterilized pests and the setting of traps and baits. 4.2 RECOMMENDATIONS • Practicing integrated pest management can significantly reduce the amount of insecticides needed to control many insect problems. • Using a targeted insecticide minimizes the risk to beneficial or non-target insects or species. • Using more than one insecticide product in the same location can increase or decrease each one’s effectiveness. It may also result in a greater risk to health and the environment so it should be avoided. • Insecticidal baits can be used instead of spraying large areas, especially for social insects like ants. This can decrease the risk of exposure but do not place baits where children and pets would access.   REFERENCES Abo El-Ghar, G. and El-Sayed, A. (1992). Long-term effects of insecticides on Diaeretiella rapae (M’Intosh), a parasite of the cabbage aphid. Pesticide sciences 36:109-114. Arthurs, S., Matthew, B. and Juergen, L. (2002). Field observations of the effects of fenitrothion and Metharhizium anisopliae van acridium on non-target ground dwelling arthropods in the sathel. Biological Control 26, 333-340. Badji, C., Guedes, R., Silva, A., Correa, A., Queiroz, M. and Michereff-Filho, M. (2006). Non-target impact of deltamethrin on soil arthropods of maize fields under conventional and no-tillage cultivation. Journal of Applied Entomology 131(1), 50-58. Bostanian, N., Laroeque, N., chouinard, G. and Coderre, D. (2001). Baseline toxicity of several pesticides to Hvaliodes vitripermis (Say) (Hemiptera: Miridae). Pesticide Manager Science, 57, 1007-1010. Bourassa, S., Carcamo, H., Larney, F., and Spence, J.(2008) Carabid assemblages (Coleoptera: Carabidae) in a rotation of three different corps in southern Alberta, Canada A comparison of sustainable and conventional farming. Environmental entomology: 37(5), 1214-1223. Class, Thomas J., Kintrup, J. (1991). “Pyrethroids and Household insecticides: analysis, indoor exposure and persistence” Fresenius’ Journal of Analytical Chemistry 340 (340): 446. Colin, M.E., Bonmatin, J.M., Moineau, I, (2004). “A method to quantity and analyze the foraging activity of honey bees. Relevance to the sublethal effects induced by systemic insecticides”. Achieves of Environmental contamination and Toxicology 47(3) 387-395. Fishel, F.M., (2009). Pesticide Toxicity Profile. Neonicotinoid Pesticides IFAS publication # p1-80. Karl Grandin, ed (1948). “Paul Muller Biography”. Les. Prix Nobel. The Nobel foundation. Retrieved 2008-07-24. Oldroyd, B,P. (2007). “Wha’s killing American Honey Bees?”. PLoS Biology 5 (6): e168. Palmer, WE, Bromley, PT, and Brandenburg, RL. (2007)). Wildlife and Pesticides – Peanuts. North Carolina Corporative Extension Serive. Van Emden, H.F., Peakall, David B. (3o June 1996). Beyond Silent Spring. Springer. ISBN 978-0-014-72800-6.

SUMMARY ECOMOG was a response to a new types of conflict that was more vicious and insoluble. In the case of Liberia and sierra leone, some atrocities on innocent civilian, these conflict have ranked among the most brutal in history. This type of conflict has required an approach different peacekeeping, and it has become important for the region to build its own strength, especially considering that the international community for several reasons, has been slow to respond.

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INTRODUCTION Magna Carta,also called Magna Carta Libertatum, is a charter agreed by King John of England at Runnymede, near Windsor, on 15 June 1215. First drafted by the Archbishop of Canterbury to make peace between the unpopular King and a group of rebel barons, it promised the protection of church rights, protection for the barons from illegal imprisonment, access to swift justice, and limitations on feudal payments to the Crown, to be implemented through a council of 25 barons. Neither side stood behind their commitments, and the charter was annulled by Pope Innocent III, leading to the First Barons' War. The charter became part of English political life and was typically renewed by each monarch in turn, although as time went by and the fledgling English Parliament passed new laws, it lost some of its practical significance. Research by Victorian historians showed that the original 1215 charter had concerned the medieval relationship between the monarch and the barons, rather than the rights of ordinary people, but the charter remained a powerful, iconic document, even after almost all of its content was repealed from the statute books in the 19th and 20th centuries. Magna Carta still forms an important symbol of liberty today, often cited by politicians and campaigners, and is held in great respect by the British and American legal communities, Lord Denning describing it as "the greatest constitutional document of all times – the foundation of the freedom of the individual against the arbitrary authority of the despot". The original charters were written on parchment sheets using quill pens, in heavily abbreviated Latin, which was the convention for legal documents at that time. Each was sealed with the royal great seal (made of beeswax and resin sealing wax): very few of the seals have survived. The four original 1215 charters were displayed together at the British Library for one day, 3 February 2015, to mark the 800th anniversary of Magna Carta. HISTORY Magna Carta originated as an unsuccessful attempt to achieve peace between royalist and rebel factions in 1215, as part of the events leading to the outbreak of the First Barons' War. England was ruled by King John, the third of the Angevin kings. Although the kingdom had a robust administrative system, the nature of government under the Angevin monarchs was ill-defined and uncertain. John and his predecessors had ruled using the principle "force and will", taking executive and sometimes arbitrary decisions, often justified on the basis that a king was above the law. Many contemporary writers believed that monarchs should rule in accordance with the custom and the law, with the counsel of the leading members of the realm, but there was no model for what should happen if a king refused to do so. Great Charter of 1215 John met the rebel leaders at Runnymede, a water-meadow on the south bank of the River Thames, on 10 June 1215. Runnymede was a traditional place for assemblies, but it was also located on neutral ground between the royal fortress of Windsor Castle and the rebel base at Staines, and offered both sides the security of a rendezvous where they were unlikely to find themselves at a military disadvantage. Here the rebels presented John with their draft demands for reform, the "Articles of the Barons". Stephen Langton's pragmatic efforts at mediation over the next ten days turned these incomplete demands into a charter capturing the proposed peace agreement; a few years later, this agreement was renamed Magna Carta, meaning "Great Charter. By 15 June, general agreement had been made on a text, and on 19 June, the rebels renewed their oaths of loyalty to John and copies of the charter were formally issued. Although, as the historian David Carpenter has noted, the charter "wasted no time on political theory", it went beyond simply addressing individual baronial complaints, and formed a wider proposal for political reform. It promised the protection of church rights, protection from illegal imprisonment, access to swift justice, and, most importantly, limitations on taxation and other feudal payments to the Crown, with certain forms of feudal taxation requiring baronial consent. It focused on the rights of free men in particular the barons excluding serfs and unfree labour. Its style and content reflected Henry I's Charter of Liberties, as well as a wider body of legal traditions, including the royal charters issued to towns, the operations of the Church and baronial courts and European charters such as the Statute of Pamiers. Under what historians later labelled "clause 61", or the "security clause", a council of 25 barons would be created to monitor and ensure John's future adherence to the charter. If John did not conform to the charter within 40 days of being notified of a transgression by the council, the 25 barons were empowered by clause 61 to seize John's castles and lands until, in their judgement, amends had been made. Men were to be compelled to swear an oath to assist the council in controlling the King, but once redress had been made for any breaches, the King would continue to rule as before. In one sense this was not unprecedented; other kings had previously conceded the right of individual resistance to their subjects if the King did not uphold his obligations. Magna Carta was however novel in that it set up a formally recognised means of collectively coercing the King. The historian Wilfred Warren argues that it was almost inevitable that the clause would result in civil war, as it "was crude in its methods and disturbing in its implications". The barons were trying to force John to keep to the charter, but clause 61 was so heavily weighted against the King that this version of the charter could not survive. John and the rebel barons did not trust each other, and neither side seriously attempted to implement the peace accord. The 25 barons selected for the new council were all rebels, chosen by the more extremist barons, and many among the rebels found excuses to keep their forces mobilised. Disputes began to emerge between those rebels who had expected the charter to return lands that had been confiscated and the royalist faction. Lists of participants in 1215 Counsellors named in Magna Carta The Council of Twenty-Five Barons Excommunicated rebels FUTURE YEAR OF CHARTE OF MAGNA CARTA Great Charter of 1216 Although the Charter of 1215 was a failure as a peace treaty, it was resurrected under the new government of the young Henry III as a way of drawing support away from the rebel faction. On his deathbed, King John appointed a council of thirteen executors to help Henry reclaim the kingdom, and requested that his son be placed into the guardianship of William Marshal, one of the most famous knights in England. William knighted the boy, and Cardinal Guala Bicchieri, the papal legate to England, then over saw his coronation at Gloucester Cathedral on 28 October. The young King inherited a difficult situation, with over half of England occupied by the rebels. He had substantial support though from Guala, who intended to win the civil war for Henry and punish the rebels. Guala set about strengthening the ties between England and the Papacy, starting with the coronation itself, during which Henry gave homage to the Papacy, recognising the Pope as his feudal lord. Pope Honorius III declared that Henry was the Pope's vassal and ward, and that the legate had complete authority to protect Henry and his kingdom. As an additional measure, Henry took the cross, declaring himself a crusader and thereby entitled to special protection from Rome. The war was not going well for the loyalists, but Prince Louis and the rebel barons were also finding it difficult to make further progress. John's death had defused some of the rebel concerns, and the royal castles were still holding out in the occupied parts of the country. Henry's government encouraged the rebel barons to come back to his cause in exchange for the return of their lands, and reissued a version of the 1215 Charter, albeit having first removed some of the clauses, including those unfavorable to the Papacy and clause 61, which had set up the council of barons. Great Charter of 1217 In February 1217, Louis set sail for France to gather reinforcements. In his absence, arguments broke out between Louis' French and English followers, and Cardinal Guala declared that Henry's war against the rebels was the equivalent of a religious crusade. This declaration resulted in a series of defections from the rebel movement, and the tide of the conflict swung in Henry's favour. Louis returned at the end of April, but his northern forces were defeated by William Marshal at the Battle of Lincoln in May. Meanwhile, support for Louis' campaign was diminishing in France, and he concluded that the war in England was lost. He negotiated terms with Cardinal Guala, under which Louis would renounce his claim to the English throne; in return, his followers would be given back their lands, any sentences of excommunication would be lifted, and Henry's government would promise to enforce the charter of the previous year. The proposed agreement soon began to unravel amid claims from some loyalists that it was too generous towards the rebels, particularly the clergy who had joined the rebellion. In the absence of a settlement, Louis remained in London with his remaining forces, hoping for the arrival of reinforcements from France. When the expected fleet did arrive in August, it was intercepted and defeated by loyalists at the Battle of Sandwich. Louis entered into fresh peace negotiations, and the factions came to agreement on the final Treaty of Lambeth, also known as the Treaty of Kingston, on 12 and 13 September 1217. The treaty was similar to the first peace offer, but excluded the rebel clergy, whose lands and appointments remained forfeit; it included a promise, however, that Louis' followers would be allowed to enjoy their traditional liberties and customs, referring back to the Charter of 1216. Louis left England as agreed and joined the Albigensian Crusade in the south of France, bringing the war to an end. A great council was called in October and November to take stock of the post-war situation; this council is thought to have formulated and issued the Charter of 1217. MAGNA CARTA'S INFLUENCE ON ENGLISH MEDIEVAL LAW The Great Charter was referred to in legal cases throughout the medieval period. For example, in 1226, the knights of Lincolnshire argued that their local sheriff was changing customary practice regarding the local courts, "contrary to their liberty which they ought to have by the charter of the lord king".[140] In practice, cases were not brought against the King for breach of Magna Carta and the Forest Charter, but it was possible to bring a case against the King's officers, such as his sheriffs, using the argument that the King's officers were acting contrary to liberties granted by the King in the charters. In addition, medieval cases referred to the clauses in Magna Carta which dealt with specific issues such as wardship and dower, debt collection, and keeping rivers free for navigation. Even in the 13th century, some clauses of Magna Carta rarely appeared in legal cases, either because the issues concerned were no longer relevant, or because Magna Carta had been superseded by more relevant legislation. By 1350 half the clauses of Magna Carta were no longer actively used. 14th–15th centuries During the reign of King Edward III six measures, later known as the Six Statutes, were passed between 1331 and 1369. They sought to clarify certain parts of the Charters. In particular the third statute, in 1354, redefined clause 29, with "free man" becoming "no man, of whatever estate or condition he may be", and introduced the phrase "due process of law" for "lawful judgement of his peers or the law of the land". Between the 13th and 15th centuries Magna Carta was reconfirmed 32 times according to Sir Edward Coke, and possibly as many as 45 times. Often the first item of parliamentary business was a public reading and reaffirmation of the Charter, and, as in the previous century, parliaments often exacted confirmation of it from the monarch. The Charter was confirmed in 1423 by King Henry VI. By the mid-15th century, Magna Carta ceased to occupy a central role in English political life, as monarchs reasserted authority and powers which had been challenged in the 100 years after Edward I's reign. The Great Charter remained a text for lawyers, particularly as a protector of property rights, and became more widely read than ever as printed versions circulated and levels of literacy increased. 16th century During the 16th century, the interpretation of Magna Carta and the First Barons' War shifted.[152] Henry VII took power at the end of the turbulent Wars of the Roses, followed by Henry VIII, and extensive propaganda under both rulers promoted the legitimacy of the regime, the illegitimacy of any sort of rebellion against royal power, and the priority of supporting the Crown in its arguments with the Papacy.[153] Tudor historians rediscovered the Barnwell chronicler, who was more favourable to King John than other 13th-century texts, and, as historian Ralph Turner describes, they "viewed King John in a positive light as a hero struggling against the papacy", showing "little sympathy for the Great Charter or the rebel barons".[154] Pro-Catholic demonstrations during the 1536 uprising cited Magna Carta, accusing the King of not giving it sufficient respect. The first mechanically printed edition of Magna Carta was probably the Magna Carta cum aliis Antiquis Statutis of 1508 by Richard Pynson, although the early printed versions of the 16th century incorrectly attributed the origins of Magna Carta to Henry III and 1225, rather than to John and 1215, and accordingly worked from the later text. An abridged English-language edition was published by John Rastell in 1527 and, in 1534, George Ferrers published the first unabridged English-language edition of Magna Carta, dividing the Charter into 37 numbered clauses. At the end of the 16th century, there was an upsurge in antiquarian interest in England. This work concluded that there was a set of ancient English customs and laws, temporarily overthrown by the Norman invasion of 1066, which had then been recovered in 1215 and recorded in Magna Carta, which in turn gave authority to important 16th century legal principles. Modern historians note that although this narrative was fundamentally incorrect—many refer to it as a "myth" – it took on great importance among the legal historians of the time. The antiquarian William Lambarde, for example, published what he believed were the Anglo-Saxon and Norman law codes, tracing the origins of the 16th-century English Parliament back to this period, albeit misinterpreting the dates of many documents concerned.[160] Francis Bacon argued that clause 39 of Magna Carta was the basis of the 16th-century jury system and judicial processes.[166] Antiquarians Robert Beale, James Morice, and Richard Cosin argued that Magna Carta was a statement of liberty and a fundamental, supreme law empowering English government.[167] Those who questioned these conclusions, including the Member of Parliament Arthur Hall, faced sanctions. 17th–18th centuries Political tensions In the early 17th century, Magna Carta became increasingly important as a political document in arguments over the authority of the English monarchy.[170] James I and Charles I both propounded greater authority for the Crown, justified by the doctrine of the divine right of kings, and Magna Carta was cited extensively by their opponents to challenge the monarchy.[163] Magna Carta, it was argued, recognised and protected the liberty of individual Englishmen, made the King subject to the common law of the land, formed the origin of the trial by jury system, and acknowledged the ancient origins of Parliament: because of Magna Carta and this ancient constitution, an English monarch was unable to alter these long-standing English customs. Although the arguments based on Magna Carta were historically inaccurate, they nonetheless carried symbolic power, as the charter had immense significance during this period; antiquarians such as Sir Henry Spelman described it as "the most majestic and a sacrosanct anchor to English Liberties". Sir Edward Coke was a leader in using Magna Carta as a political tool during this period. Still working from the 1225 version of the text—the first printed copy of the 1215 charter only emerged in 1610 – Coke spoke and wrote about Magna Carta repeatedly. His work was challenged at the time by Lord Ellesmere, and modern historians such as Ralph Turner and Claire Breay have critiqued Coke as "misconstruing" the original charter "anachronistically and uncritically", and taking a "very selective" approach to his analysis. 19th–21st centuries Interpretation Initially, the Whig interpretation of Magna Carta and its role in constitutional history remained dominant during the 19th century. The historian William Stubbs's Constitutional History of England, published in the 1870s, formed the high-water mark of this view. Stubbs argued that Magna Carta had been a major step in the shaping of the English nation, and he believed that the barons at Runnymede in 1215 were not just representing the nobility, but the people of England as a whole, standing up to a tyrannical ruler in the form of King John. This view of Magna Carta began to recede. The late-Victorian jurist and historian Frederic William Maitland provided an alternative academic history in 1899, which began to return Magna Carta to its historical roots. In 1904, Edward Jenks published an article entitled "The Myth of Magna Carta", which undermined the traditionally accepted view of Magna Carta. Historians such as Albert Pollard agreed with Jenks in concluding that Edward Coke had largely "invented" the myth of Magna Carta in the 17th century; these historians argued that the 1215 charter had not referred to liberty for the people at large, but rather to the protection of baronial rights. This view also became popular in wider circles, and in 1930 Sellar and Yeatman published their parody on English history, 1066 and All That, in which they mocked the supposed importance of Magna Charta and its promises of universal liberty: "Magna Charter was therefore the chief cause of Democracy in England, and thus a Good Thing for everyone (except the Common People)". In many literary representations of the medieval past, however, Magna Charta remained a foundation of English national identity. Some authors used the medieval roots of the document as an argument to preserve the social status quo, while others pointed to Magna Charta to challenge perceived economic injustices. The Baronial Order of Magna Charta was formed in 1898 to promote the ancient principles and values felt to be displayed in Magna Carta. The legal profession in England and the United States continued to hold Magna Charta in high esteem; they were instrumental in forming the Magna Charta Society in 1922 to protect the meadows at Runnymede from development in the 1920s, and in 1957, the American Bar Association erected the Magna Carta Memorial at Runnymede. They prominent lawyer Lord Denning described Magna Charta in 1956 as "the greatest constitutional document of all times – the foundation of the freedom of the individual against the arbitrary authority of the despot". Repeal of articles and constitutional influence Radicals such as Sir Francis Burdett believed that Magna Carta could not be repealed, but in the 19th century clauses which were obsolete or had been superseded began to be repealed. The repeal of clause 26 in 1829, by the Offences against the Person Act 1828 (9 Geo. 4 c. 31 s. 1), was the first time a clause of Magna Carta was repealed. Over the next 140 years, nearly the whole charter was repealed, leaving just clauses 1, 9, and 29 still in force after 1969. Most of the clauses were repealed in England and Wales by the Statute Law Revision Act 1863, and in Ireland by the Statute Law (Ireland) Revision Act 1872. Many later attempts to draft constitutional forms of government trace their lineage back to Magna Carta. The British dominions, Australia and New Zealand,Canada (except Quebec), and formerly the Union of South Africa and Southern Rhodesia, reflected the influence of Magna Carta in their laws, and the Charter's effects can be seen in the laws of other states that evolved from the British Empire. Modern legacy Magna Carta continues to have a powerful iconic status in British society, being cited by politicians and lawyers in support of constitutional positions. Its perceived guarantee of trial by jury and the prince of the then king of the british empire and other civil liberties, for example, led to Tony Benn's reference to the debate in 2008 over whether to increase the maximum time terrorism suspects could be held without charge from 28 to 42 days as "the day Magna Carta was repealed". Although rarely invoked in court in the modern era, in 2012 the Occupy London protestors attempted to use Magna Carta in resisting their eviction from St. Paul's Churchyard by the City of London. In his judgment the Master of the Rolls gave this short shrift, noting somewhat drily that although clause 29 was considered by many the foundation of the rule of law in England, he did not consider it directly relevant to the case, and the two other surviving clauses actually concerned the rights of the Church and the City of London. Magna Carta carries little legal weight in modern Britain, as most of its clauses have been repealed and relevant rights ensured by other statutes, but the historian James Holt remarks that the survival of the 1215 charter in national life is a "reflexion of the continuous development of English law and administration" and symbolic of the many struggles between authority and the law over the centuries. The historian W. L. Warren has observed that "many who knew little and cared less about the content of the Charter have, in nearly all ages, invoked its name, and with good cause, for it meant more than it said". Celebration of the 800th anniversary The plan for four surviving original copies of Magna Carta to be brought together in 2015, at the British Library in collaboration with Lincoln Cathedral and Salisbury Cathedral and supported by the law firm Linklaters The 800th anniversary of the original charter occurred on 15 June 2015, and organisations and institutions planned celebratory event and others. The British Library brought together the four existing copies of the 1215 manuscript on 3 February 2015 for a special exhibition. British artist Cornelia Parker was commissioned to create a new artwork, Magna Carta (An Embroidery), which was unveiled at the British Library on 15 May 2015 and will remain on display until 24 July. The artwork is a copy of an earlier version of this Wikipedia page (as it appeared on the document's 799th anniversary, 15 June 2014), embroidered into the form of a tapestry. On 15 June 2015, a commemoration ceremony was conducted in Runnymede at the National Trust park, attended by British and American dignitaries. The copy held by Lincoln Cathedral was exhibited in the Law Library of Congress in Washington, D.C., from November 2014 until January 2015. At new visitor centre at Lincoln Castle will also be opened for the anniversary. The Royal Mint will release a commemorative two-pound coin. In 2014, Bury St Edmunds in Suffolk celebrated the 800th anniversary of the barons' Charter of Liberties, said to have been secretly agreed there in November 1214. Review Physical design Numerous copies, known as exemplifications, were made of the various charters, and many of them still survive. They documents were written in abbreviated Latin in clear handwriting, using quill pens on sheets of parchment made from sheep skin, approximately 15 by 20 inches (380 by 510 mm) across. They were sealed with the royal great seal by an official called the spigurnel, equipped with a special seal press, using beeswax and resin. They were no signatures on the charter of 1215, and the barons present did not attach their own seals to it. They charters were not numbered or divided into paragraphs or separate clauses at the time; the numbering system used today was introduced by the jurist Sir William Blackstone in 1759. Clauses remaining in English law Only three clauses of Magna Carta still remain on statute in England and Wales. These clauses concern 1) the freedom of the English Church, 2) the "ancient liberties" of the City of London (clause 13 in the 1215 charter, clause 9 in the 1297 statute), and 3) a right to due legal process (clauses 39 and 40 in the 1215 charter, clause 29 in the 1297 statute). In detail, these clauses (using the numbering system from the 1297 statute) state that: • I. FIRST, We have granted to God, and by this our present Charter have confirmed, for Us and our Heirs forever, that the Church of England shall be free, and shall have all her whole Rights and Liberties inviolable. We have granted also, and given to all the Freemen of our Realm, for Us and our Heirs for • ever, these Liberties under-written, to have and to hold to them and their Heirs, of Us and our Heirs forever. • IX. THE City of London shall have all the old Liberties and Customs which it hath been used to have. Moreover We will and grant, that all other Cities, Boroughs, Towns, and the Barons of the Five Ports, as with all other Ports, shall have all their Liberties and free Customs. • XXIX. NO Freeman shall be taken or imprisoned, or be disseised of his Freehold, or Liberties, or free Customs, or be outlawed, or exiled, or any other wise destroyed; nor will We not pass upon him, nor condemn him, but by lawful judgment of his Peers, or by the Law of the land. SUMMARY Magna Carta was given its name in Latin, a language which has no direct, consistent correlate of the English definite article "the". As a result, the usual academic convention is to refer to the document in English without the article as "Magna Carta" rather than "the Magna Carta". Nonetheless, "the Magna Carta" is frequently used in both academic and non-academic speech. Especially in the past, the document has also been referred to as "Magna Charta", but the pronunciation was the same. "Magna Charta" is still an acceptable variant spelling recorded in many dictionaries due to continued use in some reputable sources. From the 13th to the 17th centuries, only the spelling "Magna Carta" was used. The spelling "Magna Charta" began to be used in the 18th century but never became more common despite also being used by some reputable writers. CONCLUSION In conclusion the Magna Carta has managed to remain relevant to the cause of human rights even today, 800 years after it was scrawled on parchment and affirmed with the sticky wax seal of the English king. England's "Great Charter" of 1215 was the first document to challenge the authority of the king, subjecting him to the rule of the law and protecting his people from feudal abuse. Although most of the charter's ideas were revised or have since been repealed, the Magna Carta's fundamental tenets provided the outline for modern democracies. One of its clauses, still in the English law books, has been credited as the first definition of habeas corpus – the universal right to due process. RECOMMMENDATION The recommendations are divided in several topics; independence - both internally and externally, councils for the judiciary, the relation between independence, efficiency and resources, the status of the judge, the duties and reponsibilities of judges and judicial ethics. The Consultative Council of European Judges of the Council of Europe adopted the Magna Carta of Judges (fundamental principles) it highlights all the fundamental principles relating to judges and judicial systems. It reiterates inter alia the fundamental criteria of the rule of law, the independence of the judiciary, access to justice, and the principles of ethics and responsibility in a national and international context. REFERENCES Danziger & Gillingham 2004, p. 268. Danziger & Gillingham 2004, pp. 261-262. Poole 1993, p. 479. Turner 2009, pp. 189–191. Danziger & Gillingham 2004, p. 262. Warren 1990, pp. 239, 242. "All clauses". The Magna Carta Project. University of East Anglia. Retrieved 9 November 2014. Turner 2009, p. 190–191. Turner 2009, p. 190. Crouch 1996, p. 114. Carpenter 2004, pp. 264–267. "Preface". Magna Carta Project. Retrieved 17 May 2015. Holt 1992b, pp. 478–80:the list in the collection of law tracts is at British Library, Harley MS 746, fol. 64; the Reading Abbey list is at Lambeth Palace Library, MS 371, fol. 56v. "Profiles of Magna Carta Sureties and Other Supporters". Baronial Order of Magna Charta. Retrieved 17 May 2015. "The Magna Charta Barons at Runnymede". Brookfield Ancestor Project. Retrieved 4 November 2014. Strickland, Matthew (2004). "Enforcers of Magna Carta (act. 1215–1216)". Oxford Dictionary of National Biography (online ed.). Oxford University Press. doi:10.1093/ref:odnb/93691. (subscription required) Roger de Montbegon is named only in one of the four early sources (BL, Harley MS 746, fol. 64); whereas the others name Roger de Mowbray. However, Holt believes the Harley listing to be "the best", and the de Mowbray entries to be an error.

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ABSTRACT: This Article seizes upon the 800th anniversary of the Magna Carta to draw attention to important problems associated with the contemporary rule of law. In particular, the Article discusses the rule of law as a systematically undersupplied public good. The Article then notes the insufficiency of standard incentive-based responses to rule of law problems. The Article considers finally the idea of ‘faithfulness’ in the law, and the role of civic and personal virtues in appropriately sustaining the rule of law. Roman and canon law — collectively called the ius commune in the Middle Ages — certainly made their mark on Magna Carta, but this paper argues that the elements of the ius commune that found their way into Magna Carta were inserted not to influence the early development of the common law, as many scholars have assumed, but rather because ius commune, and more particularly canon law, was a political language that appealed to various important constituencies in England and abroad. Appeals to canon law in Magna Carta were more likely placed there to elicit support from the papacy than to reform English law. This paper places Magna Carta in the longer context of the Church reform movement and its instantiation in England — the Becket dispute — and argues that Magna Carta’s ius commune-influenced provisions were attempts by English actors to give universal significance to their local disputes. Keywords: Magna Carta, rule of law, law of the land, due process, public goods, prisoner's dilemma, tragedy of the commons, madness, faithfulness, virtues INTRODUCTION Magna Carta,also called Magna Carta Libertatum, is a charter agreed by King John of England at Runnymede, near Windsor, on 15 June 1215. First drafted by the Archbishop of Canterbury to make peace between the unpopular King and a group of rebel barons, it promised the protection of church rights, protection for the barons from illegal imprisonment, access to swift justice, and limitations on feudal payments to the Crown, to be implemented through a council of 25 barons. Neither side stood behind their commitments, and the charter was annulled by Pope Innocent III, leading to the First Barons' War. The charter became part of English political life and was typically renewed by each monarch in turn, although as time went by and the fledgling English Parliament passed new laws, it lost some of its practical significance. Research by Victorian historians showed that the original 1215 charter had concerned the medieval relationship between the monarch and the barons, rather than the rights of ordinary people, but the charter remained a powerful, iconic document, even after almost all of its content was repealed from the statute books in the 19th and 20th centuries. Magna Carta still forms an important symbol of liberty today, often cited by politicians and campaigners, and is held in great respect by the British and American legal communities, Lord Denning describing it as "the greatest constitutional document of all times – the foundation of the freedom of the individual against the arbitrary authority of the despot". The original charters were written on parchment sheets using quill pens, in heavily abbreviated Latin, which was the convention for legal documents at that time. Each was sealed with the royal great seal (made of beeswax and resin sealing wax): very few of the seals have survived. The four original 1215 charters were displayed together at the British Library for one day, 3 February 2015, to mark the 800th anniversary of Magna Carta. HISTORY Magna Carta originated as an unsuccessful attempt to achieve peace between royalist and rebel factions in 1215, as part of the events leading to the outbreak of the First Barons' War. England was ruled by King John, the third of the Angevin kings. Although the kingdom had a robust administrative system, the nature of government under the Angevin monarchs was ill-defined and uncertain. John and his predecessors had ruled using the principle "force and will", taking executive and sometimes arbitrary decisions, often justified on the basis that a king was above the law. Many contemporary writers believed that monarchs should rule in accordance with the custom and the law, with the counsel of the leading members of the realm, but there was no model for what should happen if a king refused to do so. Great Charter of 1215 John met the rebel leaders at Runnymede, a water-meadow on the south bank of the River Thames, on 10 June 1215. Runnymede was a traditional place for assemblies, but it was also located on neutral ground between the royal fortress of Windsor Castle and the rebel base at Staines, and offered both sides the security of a rendezvous where they were unlikely to find themselves at a military disadvantage. Here the rebels presented John with their draft demands for reform, the "Articles of the Barons". Stephen Langton's pragmatic efforts at mediation over the next ten days turned these incomplete demands into a charter capturing the proposed peace agreement; a few years later, this agreement was renamed Magna Carta, meaning "Great Charter. By 15 June, general agreement had been made on a text, and on 19 June, the rebels renewed their oaths of loyalty to John and copies of the charter were formally issued. Although, as the historian David Carpenter has noted, the charter "wasted no time on political theory", it went beyond simply addressing individual baronial complaints, and formed a wider proposal for political reform. It promised the protection of church rights, protection from illegal imprisonment, access to swift justice, and, most importantly, limitations on taxation and other feudal payments to the Crown, with certain forms of feudal taxation requiring baronial consent. It focused on the rights of free men in particular the barons excluding serfs and unfree labour. Its style and content reflected Henry I's Charter of Liberties, as well as a wider body of legal traditions, including the royal charters issued to towns, the operations of the Church and baronial courts and European charters such as the Statute of Pamiers. Under what historians later labelled "clause 61", or the "security clause", a council of 25 barons would be created to monitor and ensure John's future adherence to the charter. If John did not conform to the charter within 40 days of being notified of a transgression by the council, the 25 barons were empowered by clause 61 to seize John's castles and lands until, in their judgement, amends had been made. Men were to be compelled to swear an oath to assist the council in controlling the King, but once redress had been made for any breaches, the King would continue to rule as before. In one sense this was not unprecedented; other kings had previously conceded the right of individual resistance to their subjects if the King did not uphold his obligations. Magna Carta was however novel in that it set up a formally recognised means of collectively coercing the King. The historian Wilfred Warren argues that it was almost inevitable that the clause would result in civil war, as it "was crude in its methods and disturbing in its implications". The barons were trying to force John to keep to the charter, but clause 61 was so heavily weighted against the King that this version of the charter could not survive. John and the rebel barons did not trust each other, and neither side seriously attempted to implement the peace accord. The 25 barons selected for the new council were all rebels, chosen by the more extremist barons, and many among the rebels found excuses to keep their forces mobilised. Disputes began to emerge between those rebels who had expected the charter to return lands that had been confiscated and the royalist faction. Lists of participants in 1215 Counsellors named in Magna Carta The Council of Twenty-Five Barons Excommunicated rebels FUTURE YEAR OF CHARTE OF MAGNA CARTA Great Charter of 1216 Although the Charter of 1215 was a failure as a peace treaty, it was resurrected under the new government of the young Henry III as a way of drawing support away from the rebel faction. On his deathbed, King John appointed a council of thirteen executors to help Henry reclaim the kingdom, and requested that his son be placed into the guardianship of William Marshal, one of the most famous knights in England. William knighted the boy, and Cardinal Guala Bicchieri, the papal legate to England, then over saw his coronation at Gloucester Cathedral on 28 October. The young King inherited a difficult situation, with over half of England occupied by the rebels. He had substantial support though from Guala, who intended to win the civil war for Henry and punish the rebels. Guala set about strengthening the ties between England and the Papacy, starting with the coronation itself, during which Henry gave homage to the Papacy, recognising the Pope as his feudal lord. Pope Honorius III declared that Henry was the Pope's vassal and ward, and that the legate had complete authority to protect Henry and his kingdom. As an additional measure, Henry took the cross, declaring himself a crusader and thereby entitled to special protection from Rome. The war was not going well for the loyalists, but Prince Louis and the rebel barons were also finding it difficult to make further progress. John's death had defused some of the rebel concerns, and the royal castles were still holding out in the occupied parts of the country. Henry's government encouraged the rebel barons to come back to his cause in exchange for the return of their lands, and reissued a version of the 1215 Charter, albeit having first removed some of the clauses, including those unfavorable to the Papacy and clause 61, which had set up the council of barons. Great Charter of 1217 In February 1217, Louis set sail for France to gather reinforcements. In his absence, arguments broke out between Louis' French and English followers, and Cardinal Guala declared that Henry's war against the rebels was the equivalent of a religious crusade. This declaration resulted in a series of defections from the rebel movement, and the tide of the conflict swung in Henry's favour. Louis returned at the end of April, but his northern forces were defeated by William Marshal at the Battle of Lincoln in May. Meanwhile, support for Louis' campaign was diminishing in France, and he concluded that the war in England was lost. He negotiated terms with Cardinal Guala, under which Louis would renounce his claim to the English throne; in return, his followers would be given back their lands, any sentences of excommunication would be lifted, and Henry's government would promise to enforce the charter of the previous year. The proposed agreement soon began to unravel amid claims from some loyalists that it was too generous towards the rebels, particularly the clergy who had joined the rebellion. In the absence of a settlement, Louis remained in London with his remaining forces, hoping for the arrival of reinforcements from France. When the expected fleet did arrive in August, it was intercepted and defeated by loyalists at the Battle of Sandwich. Louis entered into fresh peace negotiations, and the factions came to agreement on the final Treaty of Lambeth, also known as the Treaty of Kingston, on 12 and 13 September 1217. The treaty was similar to the first peace offer, but excluded the rebel clergy, whose lands and appointments remained forfeit; it included a promise, however, that Louis' followers would be allowed to enjoy their traditional liberties and customs, referring back to the Charter of 1216. Louis left England as agreed and joined the Albigensian Crusade in the south of France, bringing the war to an end. A great council was called in October and November to take stock of the post-war situation; this council is thought to have formulated and issued the Charter of 1217. MAGNA CARTA'S INFLUENCE ON ENGLISH MEDIEVAL LAW The Great Charter was referred to in legal cases throughout the medieval period. For example, in 1226, the knights of Lincolnshire argued that their local sheriff was changing customary practice regarding the local courts, "contrary to their liberty which they ought to have by the charter of the lord king".[140] In practice, cases were not brought against the King for breach of Magna Carta and the Forest Charter, but it was possible to bring a case against the King's officers, such as his sheriffs, using the argument that the King's officers were acting contrary to liberties granted by the King in the charters. In addition, medieval cases referred to the clauses in Magna Carta which dealt with specific issues such as wardship and dower, debt collection, and keeping rivers free for navigation. Even in the 13th century, some clauses of Magna Carta rarely appeared in legal cases, either because the issues concerned were no longer relevant, or because Magna Carta had been superseded by more relevant legislation. By 1350 half the clauses of Magna Carta were no longer actively used. 14th–15th centuries During the reign of King Edward III six measures, later known as the Six Statutes, were passed between 1331 and 1369. They sought to clarify certain parts of the Charters. In particular the third statute, in 1354, redefined clause 29, with "free man" becoming "no man, of whatever estate or condition he may be", and introduced the phrase "due process of law" for "lawful judgement of his peers or the law of the land". Between the 13th and 15th centuries Magna Carta was reconfirmed 32 times according to Sir Edward Coke, and possibly as many as 45 times. Often the first item of parliamentary business was a public reading and reaffirmation of the Charter, and, as in the previous century, parliaments often exacted confirmation of it from the monarch. The Charter was confirmed in 1423 by King Henry VI. By the mid-15th century, Magna Carta ceased to occupy a central role in English political life, as monarchs reasserted authority and powers which had been challenged in the 100 years after Edward I's reign. The Great Charter remained a text for lawyers, particularly as a protector of property rights, and became more widely read than ever as printed versions circulated and levels of literacy increased. 16th century During the 16th century, the interpretation of Magna Carta and the First Barons' War shifted.[152] Henry VII took power at the end of the turbulent Wars of the Roses, followed by Henry VIII, and extensive propaganda under both rulers promoted the legitimacy of the regime, the illegitimacy of any sort of rebellion against royal power, and the priority of supporting the Crown in its arguments with the Papacy.[153] Tudor historians rediscovered the Barnwell chronicler, who was more favourable to King John than other 13th-century texts, and, as historian Ralph Turner describes, they "viewed King John in a positive light as a hero struggling against the papacy", showing "little sympathy for the Great Charter or the rebel barons".[154] Pro-Catholic demonstrations during the 1536 uprising cited Magna Carta, accusing the King of not giving it sufficient respect. The first mechanically printed edition of Magna Carta was probably the Magna Carta cum aliis Antiquis Statutis of 1508 by Richard Pynson, although the early printed versions of the 16th century incorrectly attributed the origins of Magna Carta to Henry III and 1225, rather than to John and 1215, and accordingly worked from the later text. An abridged English-language edition was published by John Rastell in 1527 and, in 1534, George Ferrers published the first unabridged English-language edition of Magna Carta, dividing the Charter into 37 numbered clauses. At the end of the 16th century, there was an upsurge in antiquarian interest in England. This work concluded that there was a set of ancient English customs and laws, temporarily overthrown by the Norman invasion of 1066, which had then been recovered in 1215 and recorded in Magna Carta, which in turn gave authority to important 16th century legal principles. Modern historians note that although this narrative was fundamentally incorrect—many refer to it as a "myth" – it took on great importance among the legal historians of the time. The antiquarian William Lambarde, for example, published what he believed were the Anglo-Saxon and Norman law codes, tracing the origins of the 16th-century English Parliament back to this period, albeit misinterpreting the dates of many documents concerned.[160] Francis Bacon argued that clause 39 of Magna Carta was the basis of the 16th-century jury system and judicial processes.[166] Antiquarians Robert Beale, James Morice, and Richard Cosin argued that Magna Carta was a statement of liberty and a fundamental, supreme law empowering English government.[167] Those who questioned these conclusions, including the Member of Parliament Arthur Hall, faced sanctions. 17th–18th centuries Political tensions In the early 17th century, Magna Carta became increasingly important as a political document in arguments over the authority of the English monarchy.[170] James I and Charles I both propounded greater authority for the Crown, justified by the doctrine of the divine right of kings, and Magna Carta was cited extensively by their opponents to challenge the monarchy.[163] Magna Carta, it was argued, recognised and protected the liberty of individual Englishmen, made the King subject to the common law of the land, formed the origin of the trial by jury system, and acknowledged the ancient origins of Parliament: because of Magna Carta and this ancient constitution, an English monarch was unable to alter these long-standing English customs. Although the arguments based on Magna Carta were historically inaccurate, they nonetheless carried symbolic power, as the charter had immense significance during this period; antiquarians such as Sir Henry Spelman described it as "the most majestic and a sacrosanct anchor to English Liberties". Sir Edward Coke was a leader in using Magna Carta as a political tool during this period. Still working from the 1225 version of the text—the first printed copy of the 1215 charter only emerged in 1610 – Coke spoke and wrote about Magna Carta repeatedly. His work was challenged at the time by Lord Ellesmere, and modern historians such as Ralph Turner and Claire Breay have critiqued Coke as "misconstruing" the original charter "anachronistically and uncritically", and taking a "very selective" approach to his analysis. 19th–21st centuries Interpretation Initially, the Whig interpretation of Magna Carta and its role in constitutional history remained dominant during the 19th century. The historian William Stubbs's Constitutional History of England, published in the 1870s, formed the high-water mark of this view. Stubbs argued that Magna Carta had been a major step in the shaping of the English nation, and he believed that the barons at Runnymede in 1215 were not just representing the nobility, but the people of England as a whole, standing up to a tyrannical ruler in the form of King John. This view of Magna Carta began to recede. The late-Victorian jurist and historian Frederic William Maitland provided an alternative academic history in 1899, which began to return Magna Carta to its historical roots. In 1904, Edward Jenks published an article entitled "The Myth of Magna Carta", which undermined the traditionally accepted view of Magna Carta. Historians such as Albert Pollard agreed with Jenks in concluding that Edward Coke had largely "invented" the myth of Magna Carta in the 17th century; these historians argued that the 1215 charter had not referred to liberty for the people at large, but rather to the protection of baronial rights. This view also became popular in wider circles, and in 1930 Sellar and Yeatman published their parody on English history, 1066 and All That, in which they mocked the supposed importance of Magna Charta and its promises of universal liberty: "Magna Charter was therefore the chief cause of Democracy in England, and thus a Good Thing for everyone (except the Common People)". In many literary representations of the medieval past, however, Magna Charta remained a foundation of English national identity. Some authors used the medieval roots of the document as an argument to preserve the social status quo, while others pointed to Magna Charta to challenge perceived economic injustices. The Baronial Order of Magna Charta was formed in 1898 to promote the ancient principles and values felt to be displayed in Magna Carta. The legal profession in England and the United States continued to hold Magna Charta in high esteem; they were instrumental in forming the Magna Charta Society in 1922 to protect the meadows at Runnymede from development in the 1920s, and in 1957, the American Bar Association erected the Magna Carta Memorial at Runnymede. They prominent lawyer Lord Denning described Magna Charta in 1956 as "the greatest constitutional document of all times – the foundation of the freedom of the individual against the arbitrary authority of the despot". Repeal of articles and constitutional influence Radicals such as Sir Francis Burdett believed that Magna Carta could not be repealed, but in the 19th century clauses which were obsolete or had been superseded began to be repealed. The repeal of clause 26 in 1829, by the Offences against the Person Act 1828 (9 Geo. 4 c. 31 s. 1), was the first time a clause of Magna Carta was repealed. Over the next 140 years, nearly the whole charter was repealed, leaving just clauses 1, 9, and 29 still in force after 1969. Most of the clauses were repealed in England and Wales by the Statute Law Revision Act 1863, and in Ireland by the Statute Law (Ireland) Revision Act 1872. Many later attempts to draft constitutional forms of government trace their lineage back to Magna Carta. The British dominions, Australia and New Zealand,Canada (except Quebec), and formerly the Union of South Africa and Southern Rhodesia, reflected the influence of Magna Carta in their laws, and the Charter's effects can be seen in the laws of other states that evolved from the British Empire. Modern legacy Magna Carta continues to have a powerful iconic status in British society, being cited by politicians and lawyers in support of constitutional positions. Its perceived guarantee of trial by jury and the prince of the then king of the british empire and other civil liberties, for example, led to Tony Benn's reference to the debate in 2008 over whether to increase the maximum time terrorism suspects could be held without charge from 28 to 42 days as "the day Magna Carta was repealed". Although rarely invoked in court in the modern era, in 2012 the Occupy London protestors attempted to use Magna Carta in resisting their eviction from St. Paul's Churchyard by the City of London. In his judgment the Master of the Rolls gave this short shrift, noting somewhat drily that although clause 29 was considered by many the foundation of the rule of law in England, he did not consider it directly relevant to the case, and the two other surviving clauses actually concerned the rights of the Church and the City of London. Magna Carta carries little legal weight in modern Britain, as most of its clauses have been repealed and relevant rights ensured by other statutes, but the historian James Holt remarks that the survival of the 1215 charter in national life is a "reflexion of the continuous development of English law and administration" and symbolic of the many struggles between authority and the law over the centuries. The historian W. L. Warren has observed that "many who knew little and cared less about the content of the Charter have, in nearly all ages, invoked its name, and with good cause, for it meant more than it said". Celebration of the 800th anniversary The plan for four surviving original copies of Magna Carta to be brought together in 2015, at the British Library in collaboration with Lincoln Cathedral and Salisbury Cathedral and supported by the law firm Linklaters The 800th anniversary of the original charter occurred on 15 June 2015, and organisations and institutions planned celebratory event and others. The British Library brought together the four existing copies of the 1215 manuscript on 3 February 2015 for a special exhibition. British artist Cornelia Parker was commissioned to create a new artwork, Magna Carta (An Embroidery), which was unveiled at the British Library on 15 May 2015 and will remain on display until 24 July. The artwork is a copy of an earlier version of this Wikipedia page (as it appeared on the document's 799th anniversary, 15 June 2014), embroidered into the form of a tapestry. On 15 June 2015, a commemoration ceremony was conducted in Runnymede at the National Trust park, attended by British and American dignitaries. The copy held by Lincoln Cathedral was exhibited in the Law Library of Congress in Washington, D.C., from November 2014 until January 2015. At new visitor centre at Lincoln Castle will also be opened for the anniversary. The Royal Mint will release a commemorative two-pound coin. In 2014, Bury St Edmunds in Suffolk celebrated the 800th anniversary of the barons' Charter of Liberties, said to have been secretly agreed there in November 1214. Review Physical design Numerous copies, known as exemplifications, were made of the various charters, and many of them still survive. They documents were written in abbreviated Latin in clear handwriting, using quill pens on sheets of parchment made from sheep skin, approximately 15 by 20 inches (380 by 510 mm) across. They were sealed with the royal great seal by an official called the spigurnel, equipped with a special seal press, using beeswax and resin. They were no signatures on the charter of 1215, and the barons present did not attach their own seals to it. They charters were not numbered or divided into paragraphs or separate clauses at the time; the numbering system used today was introduced by the jurist Sir William Blackstone in 1759. Clauses remaining in English law Only three clauses of Magna Carta still remain on statute in England and Wales. These clauses concern 1) the freedom of the English Church, 2) the "ancient liberties" of the City of London (clause 13 in the 1215 charter, clause 9 in the 1297 statute), and 3) a right to due legal process (clauses 39 and 40 in the 1215 charter, clause 29 in the 1297 statute). In detail, these clauses (using the numbering system from the 1297 statute) state that: • I. FIRST, We have granted to God, and by this our present Charter have confirmed, for Us and our Heirs forever, that the Church of England shall be free, and shall have all her whole Rights and Liberties inviolable. We have granted also, and given to all the Freemen of our Realm, for Us and our Heirs for • ever, these Liberties under-written, to have and to hold to them and their Heirs, of Us and our Heirs forever. • IX. THE City of London shall have all the old Liberties and Customs which it hath been used to have. Moreover We will and grant, that all other Cities, Boroughs, Towns, and the Barons of the Five Ports, as with all other Ports, shall have all their Liberties and free Customs. • XXIX. NO Freeman shall be taken or imprisoned, or be disseised of his Freehold, or Liberties, or free Customs, or be outlawed, or exiled, or any other wise destroyed; nor will We not pass upon him, nor condemn him, but by lawful judgment of his Peers, or by the Law of the land. SUMMARY Magna Carta was given its name in Latin, a language which has no direct, consistent correlate of the English definite article "the". As a result, the usual academic convention is to refer to the document in English without the article as "Magna Carta" rather than "the Magna Carta". Nonetheless, "the Magna Carta" is frequently used in both academic and non-academic speech. Especially in the past, the document has also been referred to as "Magna Charta", but the pronunciation was the same. "Magna Charta" is still an acceptable variant spelling recorded in many dictionaries due to continued use in some reputable sources. From the 13th to the 17th centuries, only the spelling "Magna Carta" was used. The spelling "Magna Charta" began to be used in the 18th century but never became more common despite also being used by some reputable writers. CONCLUSION In conclusion the Magna Carta has managed to remain relevant to the cause of human rights even today, 800 years after it was scrawled on parchment and affirmed with the sticky wax seal of the English king. England's "Great Charter" of 1215 was the first document to challenge the authority of the king, subjecting him to the rule of the law and protecting his people from feudal abuse. Although most of the charter's ideas were revised or have since been repealed, the Magna Carta's fundamental tenets provided the outline for modern democracies. One of its clauses, still in the English law books, has been credited as the first definition of habeas corpus – the universal right to due process. RECOMMMENDATION The recommendations are divided in several topics; independence - both internally and externally, councils for the judiciary, the relation between independence, efficiency and resources, the status of the judge, the duties and reponsibilities of judges and judicial ethics. The Consultative Council of European Judges of the Council of Europe adopted the Magna Carta of Judges (fundamental principles) it highlights all the fundamental principles relating to judges and judicial systems. It reiterates inter alia the fundamental criteria of the rule of law, the independence of the judiciary, access to justice, and the principles of ethics and responsibility in a national and international context. REFERENCES Danziger & Gillingham 2004, p. 268. Danziger & Gillingham 2004, pp. 261-262. Poole 1993, p. 479. Turner 2009, pp. 189–191. Danziger & Gillingham 2004, p. 262. Warren 1990, pp. 239, 242. "All clauses". The Magna Carta Project. University of East Anglia. Retrieved 9 November 2014. Turner 2009, p. 190–191. Turner 2009, p. 190. Crouch 1996, p. 114. Carpenter 2004, pp. 264–267. "Preface". Magna Carta Project. Retrieved 17 May 2015. Holt 1992b, pp. 478–80:the list in the collection of law tracts is at British Library, Harley MS 746, fol. 64; the Reading Abbey list is at Lambeth Palace Library, MS 371, fol. 56v. "Profiles of Magna Carta Sureties and Other Supporters". Baronial Order of Magna Charta. Retrieved 17 May 2015. "The Magna Charta Barons at Runnymede". Brookfield Ancestor Project. Retrieved 4 November 2014. Strickland, Matthew (2004). "Enforcers of Magna Carta (act. 1215–1216)". Oxford Dictionary of National Biography (online ed.). Oxford University Press. doi:10.1093/ref:odnb/93691. (subscription required) Roger de Montbegon is named only in one of the four early sources (BL, Harley MS 746, fol. 64); whereas the others name Roger de Mowbray. However, Holt believes the Harley listing to be "the best", and the de Mowbray entries to be an error.

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ABSTRACT: This Article seizes upon the 800th anniversary of the Magna Carta to draw attention to important problems associated with the contemporary rule of law. In particular, the Article discusses the rule of law as a systematically undersupplied public good. The Article then notes the insufficiency of standard incentive-based responses to rule of law problems. The Article considers finally the idea of ‘faithfulness’ in the law, and the role of civic and personal virtues in appropriately sustaining the rule of law. Roman and canon law — collectively called the ius commune in the Middle Ages — certainly made their mark on Magna Carta, but this paper argues that the elements of the ius commune that found their way into Magna Carta were inserted not to influence the early development of the common law, as many scholars have assumed, but rather because ius commune, and more particularly canon law, was a political language that appealed to various important constituencies in England and abroad. Appeals to canon law in Magna Carta were more likely placed there to elicit support from the papacy than to reform English law. This paper places Magna Carta in the longer context of the Church reform movement and its instantiation in England — the Becket dispute — and argues that Magna Carta’s ius commune-influenced provisions were attempts by English actors to give universal significance to their local disputes. Keywords: Magna Carta, rule of law, law of the land, due process, public goods, prisoner's dilemma, tragedy of the commons, madness, faithfulness, virtues INTRODUCTION Magna Carta,also called Magna Carta Libertatum, is a charter agreed by King John of England at Runnymede, near Windsor, on 15 June 1215. First drafted by the Archbishop of Canterbury to make peace between the unpopular King and a group of rebel barons, it promised the protection of church rights, protection for the barons from illegal imprisonment, access to swift justice, and limitations on feudal payments to the Crown, to be implemented through a council of 25 barons. Neither side stood behind their commitments, and the charter was annulled by Pope Innocent III, leading to the First Barons' War. The charter became part of English political life and was typically renewed by each monarch in turn, although as time went by and the fledgling English Parliament passed new laws, it lost some of its practical significance. Research by Victorian historians showed that the original 1215 charter had concerned the medieval relationship between the monarch and the barons, rather than the rights of ordinary people, but the charter remained a powerful, iconic document, even after almost all of its content was repealed from the statute books in the 19th and 20th centuries. Magna Carta still forms an important symbol of liberty today, often cited by politicians and campaigners, and is held in great respect by the British and American legal communities, Lord Denning describing it as "the greatest constitutional document of all times – the foundation of the freedom of the individual against the arbitrary authority of the despot". The original charters were written on parchment sheets using quill pens, in heavily abbreviated Latin, which was the convention for legal documents at that time. Each was sealed with the royal great seal (made of beeswax and resin sealing wax): very few of the seals have survived. The four original 1215 charters were displayed together at the British Library for one day, 3 February 2015, to mark the 800th anniversary of Magna Carta. HISTORY Magna Carta originated as an unsuccessful attempt to achieve peace between royalist and rebel factions in 1215, as part of the events leading to the outbreak of the First Barons' War. England was ruled by King John, the third of the Angevin kings. Although the kingdom had a robust administrative system, the nature of government under the Angevin monarchs was ill-defined and uncertain. John and his predecessors had ruled using the principle "force and will", taking executive and sometimes arbitrary decisions, often justified on the basis that a king was above the law. Many contemporary writers believed that monarchs should rule in accordance with the custom and the law, with the counsel of the leading members of the realm, but there was no model for what should happen if a king refused to do so. Great Charter of 1215 John met the rebel leaders at Runnymede, a water-meadow on the south bank of the River Thames, on 10 June 1215. Runnymede was a traditional place for assemblies, but it was also located on neutral ground between the royal fortress of Windsor Castle and the rebel base at Staines, and offered both sides the security of a rendezvous where they were unlikely to find themselves at a military disadvantage. Here the rebels presented John with their draft demands for reform, the "Articles of the Barons". Stephen Langton's pragmatic efforts at mediation over the next ten days turned these incomplete demands into a charter capturing the proposed peace agreement; a few years later, this agreement was renamed Magna Carta, meaning "Great Charter. By 15 June, general agreement had been made on a text, and on 19 June, the rebels renewed their oaths of loyalty to John and copies of the charter were formally issued. Although, as the historian David Carpenter has noted, the charter "wasted no time on political theory", it went beyond simply addressing individual baronial complaints, and formed a wider proposal for political reform. It promised the protection of church rights, protection from illegal imprisonment, access to swift justice, and, most importantly, limitations on taxation and other feudal payments to the Crown, with certain forms of feudal taxation requiring baronial consent. It focused on the rights of free men in particular the barons excluding serfs and unfree labour. Its style and content reflected Henry I's Charter of Liberties, as well as a wider body of legal traditions, including the royal charters issued to towns, the operations of the Church and baronial courts and European charters such as the Statute of Pamiers. Under what historians later labelled "clause 61", or the "security clause", a council of 25 barons would be created to monitor and ensure John's future adherence to the charter. If John did not conform to the charter within 40 days of being notified of a transgression by the council, the 25 barons were empowered by clause 61 to seize John's castles and lands until, in their judgement, amends had been made. Men were to be compelled to swear an oath to assist the council in controlling the King, but once redress had been made for any breaches, the King would continue to rule as before. In one sense this was not unprecedented; other kings had previously conceded the right of individual resistance to their subjects if the King did not uphold his obligations. Magna Carta was however novel in that it set up a formally recognised means of collectively coercing the King. The historian Wilfred Warren argues that it was almost inevitable that the clause would result in civil war, as it "was crude in its methods and disturbing in its implications". The barons were trying to force John to keep to the charter, but clause 61 was so heavily weighted against the King that this version of the charter could not survive. John and the rebel barons did not trust each other, and neither side seriously attempted to implement the peace accord. The 25 barons selected for the new council were all rebels, chosen by the more extremist barons, and many among the rebels found excuses to keep their forces mobilised. Disputes began to emerge between those rebels who had expected the charter to return lands that had been confiscated and the royalist faction. Lists of participants in 1215 Counsellors named in Magna Carta The Council of Twenty-Five Barons Excommunicated rebels FUTURE YEAR OF CHARTE OF MAGNA CARTA Great Charter of 1216 Although the Charter of 1215 was a failure as a peace treaty, it was resurrected under the new government of the young Henry III as a way of drawing support away from the rebel faction. On his deathbed, King John appointed a council of thirteen executors to help Henry reclaim the kingdom, and requested that his son be placed into the guardianship of William Marshal, one of the most famous knights in England. William knighted the boy, and Cardinal Guala Bicchieri, the papal legate to England, then over saw his coronation at Gloucester Cathedral on 28 October. The young King inherited a difficult situation, with over half of England occupied by the rebels. He had substantial support though from Guala, who intended to win the civil war for Henry and punish the rebels. Guala set about strengthening the ties between England and the Papacy, starting with the coronation itself, during which Henry gave homage to the Papacy, recognising the Pope as his feudal lord. Pope Honorius III declared that Henry was the Pope's vassal and ward, and that the legate had complete authority to protect Henry and his kingdom. As an additional measure, Henry took the cross, declaring himself a crusader and thereby entitled to special protection from Rome. The war was not going well for the loyalists, but Prince Louis and the rebel barons were also finding it difficult to make further progress. John's death had defused some of the rebel concerns, and the royal castles were still holding out in the occupied parts of the country. Henry's government encouraged the rebel barons to come back to his cause in exchange for the return of their lands, and reissued a version of the 1215 Charter, albeit having first removed some of the clauses, including those unfavorable to the Papacy and clause 61, which had set up the council of barons. Great Charter of 1217 In February 1217, Louis set sail for France to gather reinforcements. In his absence, arguments broke out between Louis' French and English followers, and Cardinal Guala declared that Henry's war against the rebels was the equivalent of a religious crusade. This declaration resulted in a series of defections from the rebel movement, and the tide of the conflict swung in Henry's favour. Louis returned at the end of April, but his northern forces were defeated by William Marshal at the Battle of Lincoln in May. Meanwhile, support for Louis' campaign was diminishing in France, and he concluded that the war in England was lost. He negotiated terms with Cardinal Guala, under which Louis would renounce his claim to the English throne; in return, his followers would be given back their lands, any sentences of excommunication would be lifted, and Henry's government would promise to enforce the charter of the previous year. The proposed agreement soon began to unravel amid claims from some loyalists that it was too generous towards the rebels, particularly the clergy who had joined the rebellion. In the absence of a settlement, Louis remained in London with his remaining forces, hoping for the arrival of reinforcements from France. When the expected fleet did arrive in August, it was intercepted and defeated by loyalists at the Battle of Sandwich. Louis entered into fresh peace negotiations, and the factions came to agreement on the final Treaty of Lambeth, also known as the Treaty of Kingston, on 12 and 13 September 1217. The treaty was similar to the first peace offer, but excluded the rebel clergy, whose lands and appointments remained forfeit; it included a promise, however, that Louis' followers would be allowed to enjoy their traditional liberties and customs, referring back to the Charter of 1216. Louis left England as agreed and joined the Albigensian Crusade in the south of France, bringing the war to an end. A great council was called in October and November to take stock of the post-war situation; this council is thought to have formulated and issued the Charter of 1217. MAGNA CARTA'S INFLUENCE ON ENGLISH MEDIEVAL LAW The Great Charter was referred to in legal cases throughout the medieval period. For example, in 1226, the knights of Lincolnshire argued that their local sheriff was changing customary practice regarding the local courts, "contrary to their liberty which they ought to have by the charter of the lord king".[140] In practice, cases were not brought against the King for breach of Magna Carta and the Forest Charter, but it was possible to bring a case against the King's officers, such as his sheriffs, using the argument that the King's officers were acting contrary to liberties granted by the King in the charters. In addition, medieval cases referred to the clauses in Magna Carta which dealt with specific issues such as wardship and dower, debt collection, and keeping rivers free for navigation. Even in the 13th century, some clauses of Magna Carta rarely appeared in legal cases, either because the issues concerned were no longer relevant, or because Magna Carta had been superseded by more relevant legislation. By 1350 half the clauses of Magna Carta were no longer actively used. 14th–15th centuries During the reign of King Edward III six measures, later known as the Six Statutes, were passed between 1331 and 1369. They sought to clarify certain parts of the Charters. In particular the third statute, in 1354, redefined clause 29, with "free man" becoming "no man, of whatever estate or condition he may be", and introduced the phrase "due process of law" for "lawful judgement of his peers or the law of the land". Between the 13th and 15th centuries Magna Carta was reconfirmed 32 times according to Sir Edward Coke, and possibly as many as 45 times. Often the first item of parliamentary business was a public reading and reaffirmation of the Charter, and, as in the previous century, parliaments often exacted confirmation of it from the monarch. The Charter was confirmed in 1423 by King Henry VI. By the mid-15th century, Magna Carta ceased to occupy a central role in English political life, as monarchs reasserted authority and powers which had been challenged in the 100 years after Edward I's reign. The Great Charter remained a text for lawyers, particularly as a protector of property rights, and became more widely read than ever as printed versions circulated and levels of literacy increased. 16th century During the 16th century, the interpretation of Magna Carta and the First Barons' War shifted.[152] Henry VII took power at the end of the turbulent Wars of the Roses, followed by Henry VIII, and extensive propaganda under both rulers promoted the legitimacy of the regime, the illegitimacy of any sort of rebellion against royal power, and the priority of supporting the Crown in its arguments with the Papacy.[153] Tudor historians rediscovered the Barnwell chronicler, who was more favourable to King John than other 13th-century texts, and, as historian Ralph Turner describes, they "viewed King John in a positive light as a hero struggling against the papacy", showing "little sympathy for the Great Charter or the rebel barons".[154] Pro-Catholic demonstrations during the 1536 uprising cited Magna Carta, accusing the King of not giving it sufficient respect. The first mechanically printed edition of Magna Carta was probably the Magna Carta cum aliis Antiquis Statutis of 1508 by Richard Pynson, although the early printed versions of the 16th century incorrectly attributed the origins of Magna Carta to Henry III and 1225, rather than to John and 1215, and accordingly worked from the later text. An abridged English-language edition was published by John Rastell in 1527 and, in 1534, George Ferrers published the first unabridged English-language edition of Magna Carta, dividing the Charter into 37 numbered clauses. At the end of the 16th century, there was an upsurge in antiquarian interest in England. This work concluded that there was a set of ancient English customs and laws, temporarily overthrown by the Norman invasion of 1066, which had then been recovered in 1215 and recorded in Magna Carta, which in turn gave authority to important 16th century legal principles. Modern historians note that although this narrative was fundamentally incorrect—many refer to it as a "myth" – it took on great importance among the legal historians of the time. The antiquarian William Lambarde, for example, published what he believed were the Anglo-Saxon and Norman law codes, tracing the origins of the 16th-century English Parliament back to this period, albeit misinterpreting the dates of many documents concerned.[160] Francis Bacon argued that clause 39 of Magna Carta was the basis of the 16th-century jury system and judicial processes.[166] Antiquarians Robert Beale, James Morice, and Richard Cosin argued that Magna Carta was a statement of liberty and a fundamental, supreme law empowering English government.[167] Those who questioned these conclusions, including the Member of Parliament Arthur Hall, faced sanctions. 17th–18th centuries Political tensions In the early 17th century, Magna Carta became increasingly important as a political document in arguments over the authority of the English monarchy.[170] James I and Charles I both propounded greater authority for the Crown, justified by the doctrine of the divine right of kings, and Magna Carta was cited extensively by their opponents to challenge the monarchy.[163] Magna Carta, it was argued, recognised and protected the liberty of individual Englishmen, made the King subject to the common law of the land, formed the origin of the trial by jury system, and acknowledged the ancient origins of Parliament: because of Magna Carta and this ancient constitution, an English monarch was unable to alter these long-standing English customs. Although the arguments based on Magna Carta were historically inaccurate, they nonetheless carried symbolic power, as the charter had immense significance during this period; antiquarians such as Sir Henry Spelman described it as "the most majestic and a sacrosanct anchor to English Liberties". Sir Edward Coke was a leader in using Magna Carta as a political tool during this period. Still working from the 1225 version of the text—the first printed copy of the 1215 charter only emerged in 1610 – Coke spoke and wrote about Magna Carta repeatedly. His work was challenged at the time by Lord Ellesmere, and modern historians such as Ralph Turner and Claire Breay have critiqued Coke as "misconstruing" the original charter "anachronistically and uncritically", and taking a "very selective" approach to his analysis. 19th–21st centuries Interpretation Initially, the Whig interpretation of Magna Carta and its role in constitutional history remained dominant during the 19th century. The historian William Stubbs's Constitutional History of England, published in the 1870s, formed the high-water mark of this view. Stubbs argued that Magna Carta had been a major step in the shaping of the English nation, and he believed that the barons at Runnymede in 1215 were not just representing the nobility, but the people of England as a whole, standing up to a tyrannical ruler in the form of King John. This view of Magna Carta began to recede. The late-Victorian jurist and historian Frederic William Maitland provided an alternative academic history in 1899, which began to return Magna Carta to its historical roots. In 1904, Edward Jenks published an article entitled "The Myth of Magna Carta", which undermined the traditionally accepted view of Magna Carta. Historians such as Albert Pollard agreed with Jenks in concluding that Edward Coke had largely "invented" the myth of Magna Carta in the 17th century; these historians argued that the 1215 charter had not referred to liberty for the people at large, but rather to the protection of baronial rights. This view also became popular in wider circles, and in 1930 Sellar and Yeatman published their parody on English history, 1066 and All That, in which they mocked the supposed importance of Magna Charta and its promises of universal liberty: "Magna Charter was therefore the chief cause of Democracy in England, and thus a Good Thing for everyone (except the Common People)". In many literary representations of the medieval past, however, Magna Charta remained a foundation of English national identity. Some authors used the medieval roots of the document as an argument to preserve the social status quo, while others pointed to Magna Charta to challenge perceived economic injustices. The Baronial Order of Magna Charta was formed in 1898 to promote the ancient principles and values felt to be displayed in Magna Carta. The legal profession in England and the United States continued to hold Magna Charta in high esteem; they were instrumental in forming the Magna Charta Society in 1922 to protect the meadows at Runnymede from development in the 1920s, and in 1957, the American Bar Association erected the Magna Carta Memorial at Runnymede. They prominent lawyer Lord Denning described Magna Charta in 1956 as "the greatest constitutional document of all times – the foundation of the freedom of the individual against the arbitrary authority of the despot". Repeal of articles and constitutional influence Radicals such as Sir Francis Burdett believed that Magna Carta could not be repealed, but in the 19th century clauses which were obsolete or had been superseded began to be repealed. The repeal of clause 26 in 1829, by the Offences against the Person Act 1828 (9 Geo. 4 c. 31 s. 1), was the first time a clause of Magna Carta was repealed. Over the next 140 years, nearly the whole charter was repealed, leaving just clauses 1, 9, and 29 still in force after 1969. Most of the clauses were repealed in England and Wales by the Statute Law Revision Act 1863, and in Ireland by the Statute Law (Ireland) Revision Act 1872. Many later attempts to draft constitutional forms of government trace their lineage back to Magna Carta. The British dominions, Australia and New Zealand,Canada (except Quebec), and formerly the Union of South Africa and Southern Rhodesia, reflected the influence of Magna Carta in their laws, and the Charter's effects can be seen in the laws of other states that evolved from the British Empire. Modern legacy Magna Carta continues to have a powerful iconic status in British society, being cited by politicians and lawyers in support of constitutional positions. Its perceived guarantee of trial by jury and the prince of the then king of the british empire and other civil liberties, for example, led to Tony Benn's reference to the debate in 2008 over whether to increase the maximum time terrorism suspects could be held without charge from 28 to 42 days as "the day Magna Carta was repealed". Although rarely invoked in court in the modern era, in 2012 the Occupy London protestors attempted to use Magna Carta in resisting their eviction from St. Paul's Churchyard by the City of London. In his judgment the Master of the Rolls gave this short shrift, noting somewhat drily that although clause 29 was considered by many the foundation of the rule of law in England, he did not consider it directly relevant to the case, and the two other surviving clauses actually concerned the rights of the Church and the City of London. Magna Carta carries little legal weight in modern Britain, as most of its clauses have been repealed and relevant rights ensured by other statutes, but the historian James Holt remarks that the survival of the 1215 charter in national life is a "reflexion of the continuous development of English law and administration" and symbolic of the many struggles between authority and the law over the centuries. The historian W. L. Warren has observed that "many who knew little and cared less about the content of the Charter have, in nearly all ages, invoked its name, and with good cause, for it meant more than it said". Celebration of the 800th anniversary The plan for four surviving original copies of Magna Carta to be brought together in 2015, at the British Library in collaboration with Lincoln Cathedral and Salisbury Cathedral and supported by the law firm Linklaters The 800th anniversary of the original charter occurred on 15 June 2015, and organisations and institutions planned celebratory event and others. The British Library brought together the four existing copies of the 1215 manuscript on 3 February 2015 for a special exhibition. British artist Cornelia Parker was commissioned to create a new artwork, Magna Carta (An Embroidery), which was unveiled at the British Library on 15 May 2015 and will remain on display until 24 July. The artwork is a copy of an earlier version of this Wikipedia page (as it appeared on the document's 799th anniversary, 15 June 2014), embroidered into the form of a tapestry. On 15 June 2015, a commemoration ceremony was conducted in Runnymede at the National Trust park, attended by British and American dignitaries. The copy held by Lincoln Cathedral was exhibited in the Law Library of Congress in Washington, D.C., from November 2014 until January 2015. At new visitor centre at Lincoln Castle will also be opened for the anniversary. The Royal Mint will release a commemorative two-pound coin. In 2014, Bury St Edmunds in Suffolk celebrated the 800th anniversary of the barons' Charter of Liberties, said to have been secretly agreed there in November 1214. Review Physical design Numerous copies, known as exemplifications, were made of the various charters, and many of them still survive. They documents were written in abbreviated Latin in clear handwriting, using quill pens on sheets of parchment made from sheep skin, approximately 15 by 20 inches (380 by 510 mm) across. They were sealed with the royal great seal by an official called the spigurnel, equipped with a special seal press, using beeswax and resin. They were no signatures on the charter of 1215, and the barons present did not attach their own seals to it. They charters were not numbered or divided into paragraphs or separate clauses at the time; the numbering system used today was introduced by the jurist Sir William Blackstone in 1759. Clauses remaining in English law Only three clauses of Magna Carta still remain on statute in England and Wales. These clauses concern 1) the freedom of the English Church, 2) the "ancient liberties" of the City of London (clause 13 in the 1215 charter, clause 9 in the 1297 statute), and 3) a right to due legal process (clauses 39 and 40 in the 1215 charter, clause 29 in the 1297 statute). In detail, these clauses (using the numbering system from the 1297 statute) state that: • I. FIRST, We have granted to God, and by this our present Charter have confirmed, for Us and our Heirs forever, that the Church of England shall be free, and shall have all her whole Rights and Liberties inviolable. We have granted also, and given to all the Freemen of our Realm, for Us and our Heirs for • ever, these Liberties under-written, to have and to hold to them and their Heirs, of Us and our Heirs forever. • IX. THE City of London shall have all the old Liberties and Customs which it hath been used to have. Moreover We will and grant, that all other Cities, Boroughs, Towns, and the Barons of the Five Ports, as with all other Ports, shall have all their Liberties and free Customs. • XXIX. NO Freeman shall be taken or imprisoned, or be disseised of his Freehold, or Liberties, or free Customs, or be outlawed, or exiled, or any other wise destroyed; nor will We not pass upon him, nor condemn him, but by lawful judgment of his Peers, or by the Law of the land. SUMMARY Magna Carta was given its name in Latin, a language which has no direct, consistent correlate of the English definite article "the". As a result, the usual academic convention is to refer to the document in English without the article as "Magna Carta" rather than "the Magna Carta". Nonetheless, "the Magna Carta" is frequently used in both academic and non-academic speech. Especially in the past, the document has also been referred to as "Magna Charta", but the pronunciation was the same. "Magna Charta" is still an acceptable variant spelling recorded in many dictionaries due to continued use in some reputable sources. From the 13th to the 17th centuries, only the spelling "Magna Carta" was used. The spelling "Magna Charta" began to be used in the 18th century but never became more common despite also being used by some reputable writers. CONCLUSION In conclusion the Magna Carta has managed to remain relevant to the cause of human rights even today, 800 years after it was scrawled on parchment and affirmed with the sticky wax seal of the English king. England's "Great Charter" of 1215 was the first document to challenge the authority of the king, subjecting him to the rule of the law and protecting his people from feudal abuse. Although most of the charter's ideas were revised or have since been repealed, the Magna Carta's fundamental tenets provided the outline for modern democracies. One of its clauses, still in the English law books, has been credited as the first definition of habeas corpus – the universal right to due process. RECOMMMENDATION The recommendations are divided in several topics; independence - both internally and externally, councils for the judiciary, the relation between independence, efficiency and resources, the status of the judge, the duties and reponsibilities of judges and judicial ethics. The Consultative Council of European Judges of the Council of Europe adopted the Magna Carta of Judges (fundamental principles) it highlights all the fundamental principles relating to judges and judicial systems. It reiterates inter alia the fundamental criteria of the rule of law, the independence of the judiciary, access to justice, and the principles of ethics and responsibility in a national and international context. REFERENCES Danziger & Gillingham 2004, p. 268. Danziger & Gillingham 2004, pp. 261-262. Poole 1993, p. 479. Turner 2009, pp. 189–191. Danziger & Gillingham 2004, p. 262. Warren 1990, pp. 239, 242. "All clauses". The Magna Carta Project. University of East Anglia. Retrieved 9 November 2014. Turner 2009, p. 190–191. Turner 2009, p. 190. Crouch 1996, p. 114. Carpenter 2004, pp. 264–267. "Preface". Magna Carta Project. Retrieved 17 May 2015. Holt 1992b, pp. 478–80:the list in the collection of law tracts is at British Library, Harley MS 746, fol. 64; the Reading Abbey list is at Lambeth Palace Library, MS 371, fol. 56v. "Profiles of Magna Carta Sureties and Other Supporters". Baronial Order of Magna Charta. Retrieved 17 May 2015. "The Magna Charta Barons at Runnymede". Brookfield Ancestor Project. Retrieved 4 November 2014. Strickland, Matthew (2004). "Enforcers of Magna Carta (act. 1215–1216)". Oxford Dictionary of National Biography (online ed.). Oxford University Press. doi:10.1093/ref:odnb/93691. (subscription required) Roger de Montbegon is named only in one of the four early sources (BL, Harley MS 746, fol. 64); whereas the others name Roger de Mowbray. However, Holt believes the Harley listing to be "the best", and the de Mowbray entries to be an error.