BUILDING PROPERTIES

CHINEDU’S WORK ON BUILDING,WWW.E-GLOING.BLOGSPOT.COM, WWW.READNA.BLOGSPOT.COM The Basic Properties of Building Materials This chapter discusses the components, the structures of materials and the influence of their compositions on the properties; it emphasizes on the physical properties and the mechanical properties of materials; and also it introduces the decorativeness and the durability of materials. In the civil engineering, building materials plays different roles, so they should possess corresponding properties. For example, structural materials should have good mechanical characteristics; waterproof materials should be impermeable and water-resistant; wall materials should be heat-insulating and sound-absorbing. In addition, building materials should be durable because they oAen affected by various external factors, such as wind, rain, sun and frost. The basic properties of building materials include physical property, mechanical property, durability and decorativeness. 2.1 the Influence of Their Constructions on the Properties Compositions and Structures of Materials and 2.1.1 The Compositions of Materials The compositions of materials include chemical compositions and mineral compositions which are the key factors for the properties of materials. 1. Chemical Composition The chemical composition refers to the chemical constituents. Various chemical compositions result in different properties. For example, with the increase of carbon content, the strength, hardness and toughness of carbon Building materials in civil engineeringsteel will change; carbon steel is easy to rust, so stainless steel comes into being by adding chromium, nickel and other chemical components into steel. 2. Mineral Composition Many inorganic non-metallic materials consist of a variety of mineral compositions. Minerals are monomers and compounds with a certain chemical components and structures. The mineral compositions are the key factors for the properties of some building materials (such as natural stone, inorganic gel and other materials). Cement reveals different characteristics because of different clinkers. For example, in Portland cement clinkers, the condensation hardening is fast and the strength is high when the content of tricalcium silicate-the clinker mineral-is high. 2.1.2 Structures and Constructions of Materials The structures of materials can be divided into macro-structure, mesostructure and micro-structure, which are the key factors related to the properties of materials. 1. Macro-structure The thick structure above millimeter that can be identified with magnifying glass or naked eyes is called as macro-structure. It can be classified into the following types: (1) Dense Structure Basically, the inner side of the material is non-porous, such as steel, (2) Porous Structure The inside of this material has macro-pores, such as aerated concrete, foam (3) Micro-porous Structure The inner side of this material is micro-porous which is formed by mixing plenty of water into the micro-pores, such as common fired brick, and architectural gypsum products. nonferrous metals, glass, plastic and dense natural stone. concrete, foam plastics and artificial light materials. . (4) Fibrous Structure This material has the internal organization with direction, such as wood, bamboo, glass reinforced plastic, and asbestos products. 2 The Basic Propcrtics of Building Materials 9 ( 5 ) Laminated or Layered Structure This material has composite structure which is layered structure formed (6) Granular Structure This is a kind of loose granular material, such as sand, gravel, and expanded agglutinated by different sheets or anisotropic sheets pearlite. 2. Meso-structure The micro-level structure that can be observed by optical microscope is called meso-structure or sub-microstructure. What is mainly studied in this structure are the size, shape and interface of grains and particles, and the size, shape and distribution of pores and micro-cracks. For example, the size and the metallographic structure of metal grains can be analyzed; the thickness of concrete, cement and the porous organization can be distinguished; and the wood fiber of timber, catheter, line, resin and other structures can be observed. The micro-structure has a great influence on the mechanical properties and durability of materials. The grain refinement can improve the strength. For example, steel is mixed with titanium, vanadium, niobium and other alloying elements which can refine grains and significantly increase intensity. 3. Microstructure The atomic and molecular structures of materials that can be studied by electron microscopy, X-ray diffractometer and other means are called microstructure. This structure can be divided into crystal and non-crystal. (1) Crystal The solid whose particles (atoms, molecules or ions) are packed in a regularly ordered, repeating pattern extending in all three spatial dimensions is known as crystal. It is characterized by a fixed geometric shape and anisotropy. The various mechanical properties of crystal materials are related to the arrangement pattern of particles and their bonding force (chemical bond). Crystal can be divided into the following types by chemical bonds: 1) Atomic Crystal is formed by neutral atoms which are connected with each other by covalent bonds. The bonding force is strong. The strength, hardness, melting point and density of atomic crystal are high, such as diamond, quartz and silicon carbide. 10 Building materials in civil engineering 2) Ionic Crystal is formed by cations and anions. The ions are related with each other by electrostatic attraction (Coulomb attraction) which is generally stable. The strength, hardness and melting point are high but volatile; some are soluble and density is medium. There is calcium chloride, gypsum, limestone and so on. 3) Molecular Crystal is formed by molecules which are tied to each other by molecular force (Van der Waals attraction). The bonding force is weak. The strength, hardness and melting point are low; most of them are soluble and the density is low. There is wax and some organic compounds. 4) Metal Crystal is formed by metal cations which are connected with each other by metal bonds (Coulomb attraction). The strength and hardness are volatile and the density is high. Because metal ions have free ions, the metal materials such as iron, steel, aluminum, copper and their alloys have good thermal conductivity and electrical conductivity. Of crystal materials such as asbestos, quartz and talc, only a few ones have one combination bond, and others are complex crystal materials with more than two types of combination bonds. (2) Non-Crystal The fuse mass with a certain chemical constituents is cooled so rapidly that the particles cannot be packed in a regular ordered pattern, and thus it is solidified into a solid, known as non-crystal or vitreous body or amorphous body. Non-crystal is characterized by no fixed geometry shape and isotropy. A large number of chemicals cannot be released because of the rapid cooling, so non-crystal materials have chemical instability, easily reacting with other substances. For example, granulated blast furnace slag, volcanic ash and fly ash can react with lime under water for hardening, which are used as building materials. Non-crystal plays the role of adhesive in products of burned clay and some natural rocks. 2.2 Physical Properties of Materials 2.2.1 Density, Apparent Density and Bulk Density 1. Density Density is the dry mass per unit volume of a substance under absolute compact conditions. It is defined by: m/P = v In this formula: p is the density (dcm3); rn is the mass under dry conditions (6); V is the volume under absolute compact conditions (cm3). The volume under absolute compact conditions refers to the solid volume without the volume of inner pores. Except steel, glass, asphalt and a few other materials, most materials contain some pores in natural state. In the measurement of the density of a porous material, the material is ground into powder at first; the powder is dried to fixed mass; and then the solid volume is measured by Lee's density bottle; finally the density is calculated by the above formula. The finer the powder is ground, the more real the size will be. Thus the density value is more correct. 2. Apparent Density Apparent density is the dry mass per unit volume of a substance under natural conditions. It is defined by: M P"'v, In this formula: p,, is the apparent density (kg/m3); m is the mass under dry conditions (kg); V, is the volume under natural conditions (m3). The volume of a substance under natural conditions refers to the solid volume and the volume of inner pores. If it is a regular shape, the volume can be directly measured; if it is in an irregular shape, the volume can be measured by the liquid drainage method after sealing pores with wax; the liquid drainage method can be directly used to measure the volume of sandstone aggregate utilized in concrete but the volume here is the solid volume plus the volume of closed pores-without the volume of the pores open to the outside. Because the sandstone is compact with only a few pores, the volume of the pores open to the outside is little. Thus the volume measured by the liquid drainage method can be called apparent density which is called virtual density in the past. The quality and volume change with the water content. Generally, apparent density refers to the density of a substance under dry conditions. Other moisture conditions should be specified. 3. Bulk Density Bulk density refers to the per unit volume of a substance under the conditions that powdery or granular materials are packed. It is defined by: Po ‘=m 7/VO In this formula: po’ is the bulk density (kg/m3); m is the mass under dry conditions (kg); Vo’ is the volume under packing conditions (m3) . Bulk density is measure by volumetric container. The size of volumetric container depends on the size of particles. For example, 1L volumetric container is used to measure sand and IOL, 20L, 30L volumetric containers are used in the measurement of stone. Bulk density is the packing density of a substance under dry conditions and others should be marked. The density, apparent density and bulk density of common building materials are listed in Table 2.1. Table 2.1 Density, Apparent Density, Bulk Density and Porosity of Common Building Materials Limestone 2.2.2 The Solidity and Porosity 1. Solidity Solidity refers to the degree how the volume of a material is packed with solid substances, which is the ratio of the solid volume to the total volume. It is defined by: D=-xV1 00% or D= -PO~ 1 0 0% v o P 2. Porosity Porosity (P) is the percentage of the pores volume to the total volume with the volume of a substance. It is defined by: P=- v 0 - x loo%=( 1 - -V ) x loo%=( 1- -PO ) x 100% vo v o P The relationship between solidity and porosity can be expressed as: D+P=l Both solidity and porosity reflect the compactness of materials. Porosity and characteristics of pores (including size, connectivity, distribution, etc.) affect the properties of materials greatly. Generally, for the same material, the lower the porosity is, the less the connected pores are. Thus the strength will be higher, the water absorption will be smaller, and the permeability and frost resistance will be better, but the thermal conductivity will be greater. Porosity of some common materials is listed in Table 2.1. 2.2.3 Fill Rate and Voidage 1. Fill Rate Fill Rate (D')is the degree how granules pack the granular materials in the bulk volume. It is defined by: VO VO PO ? D'=- ~100% or D'= ~100% (2.6) 2. Voidage Voidage (P')is the percentage of the void volume among granules to the bulk volume in the bulk volume of granular materials. It is defined by: ? (2.7) Voidage reflects the compactness among granules of the granular materials. The relationship between fill rate and voidage can be expressed as: p'=- vo - vo x loo%=( 1 - "P) I x 100% VO PO D'+P'= 1 14 Building materials in civil enginecring 2.2.4 Hydro-properties of Materials 1. Hydrophilicity and Hydrophobicity When the material is exposed to water in the air, it will be hydrophilic or hydrophobic according to whether it can be wetted by water or not. If it can be wetted by water, it is the hydrophilic material; if not, it is the hydrophobic material. When materials are exposed to water droplets in the air, there will be two cases, shown as Figure 2.1. In the intersection of the material, water and air, a tangent is drown along the surface of the water droplet, and the angle between the surface and the tangent is angle 8, known as wetting angle. When angle 0 is smaller than or equals to 90" (O<90°), the material is hydrophilic, such as wood, brick, concrete and stone. The atttactive force between materials molecules and water molecules is stronger than the cohesive force between water molecules, so the materials can be wetted by water. solid solid (a) Iiydroplulic rilalcrials (b) hydrophobic miiterials Figure 2.1 The Wetting Schematic Diagram of Materials When angle 0 is bigger than 90" (R>9Oo), the material is hydrophobic, such as asphalt, wax, and plastic. The attractive force between material molecules and water molecules is weaker than the cohesive force between water molecules, so the material cannot be wetted by water. The hydrophobic materials are moisture-proof and waterproof, usually used for water-resistant materials or the surface treatment for the hydrophilic materials in order to reduce water absorption and improve impermeability. 2. The Water Absorption and Hygroscopicity (1) Water Absorption Water absorption refers to the property of absorbing water when materials are exposed to water. It is expressed by the water-absorption ratio. And there are two types of expression: 1) Specific Absorption of Quality Specific absorption of quality refers to the percentage of the absorbed water to the dry mass when the material absorbs water to saturation. It is defined by: In this formula: W, is the specific absorption of quality(%); m,, is the mass when the material absorbs water to saturation(g); m, is the mass when the material is dry (6). 2) Specific Absorption of Volume The specific absorption of volume refers to the percentage of the absorbed water's volume to the material's natural volume when the material absorbs water to saturation. It is defined by: In this formula: W, is the specific absorption of volume(%); 4 is the volume of the dry material in natural state(cm3); p, is the density of water(g/cm3), usually l.0g/cm3 at the The relationship between specific absorption of quality and that of volume room temperature. is as follows: W" =wm -Po . (2.10) In this formula: p,, is the apparent density of the material in dry state (simply called dry apparent density)(g/cm3). ' The water absorption depends on not only hydrophilicity and hydrophobicity of the material but also the porosity and characteristics of the pores. For normal materials, the higher the porosity is, the stronger the water absorption is. The more the open and connected tiny pores are, the stronger the water absorption is; it is not easy for water to be absorbed if the pores are closed; if they are large and open, water is easy to be absorbed but is hard to be hold, and thus the water absorption is weak. The water-absorption ratios of various materials vary greatly. For example, the specific absorption of quality of granite rock is 0.2%-0.7%, that of ordinary concrete is 2%-3%, that of, ordinary clay brick is 8%-20%' and that of wood or other light materials is often above 100%. The water absorption will have a negative impact on materials’ nature. If a material absorbs water, its quality will increase, its volume will expand, its thermal conductivity will increase and its strength and durability will decrease. . (2) Hygroscopicity Hygroscopicity is the property of materials to absorb water in the air. It can Moisture content is the percentage of the water quality contained in a be expressed by moisture content. material to its dry mass, expressed by Wh. It is defined by: In this formula: Wh is the moisture content(%); m, is the mass when the material contains water(g); mg is the mass when the material is dry(g). The hygroscopic effect is reversible. Dry materials can absorb moisture in the air and wet materials can release moisture to the air. The moisture content is called equilibrium moisture content if the content of a material equals to air humidity. The hygroscopicity of materials is related to air temperature and air humidity. The higher humility is and the lower the temperature is, the higher hygroscopicity will be; contrarily, the hygroscopicity will be low. Both the factors affecting hygroscopicity and the influence on materials’ properties after absorbing water are the same to the water absorption of materials. 3. Water Resistance Water resistance is the ability to maintain its original properties when the material is affected by water in a long-term. The water-resistant ability of different materials varies in expressing ways. For example, the water resistance of structural materials mainly refers to the changes in intensity, and with sotlening coefficient it is defined by: KR=-A (2.12) L In this formula: KR is the softening coefficient of a material; f, is the compressive strength of a material in water saturation state (MPa); fg is the compressive strength of a material in dry state(MPa). The softening coefficient of a material KR varies between 0 (clay) -1 (steel). The value of KR reveals the decreasing degree of the strength after the material absorbs water to saturation. The bigger KR is, the stronger the water resistance is, which indicates that the decreasing degree of the strength in saturation state is low; contrarily, the water resistance is weak. Generally, the material whose KR is bigger than or equals to 0.85 is known as water-resistant material. KR is an important basis for selecting building materials. If the major structures are often in water or wetted seriously, the materials whose KR is bigger than or equals to 0.85 (K~ b 0 . 8 5s)h ould be chosen; ifthey are the minor structures or wetted lightly, the materials whose KR is bigger than or equals to 0.75 (K~ 2 0 . 7 5s)h ould be chosen. 4. Impermeability Impermeability is the ability of a material to resist the pressure water or the infiltration of other liquids. It is expressed by permeability coefficient which is defined by: (2.13) In this formula: K is the permeability coefficient (cm/s); Q is the volume of water seepage(cm3); d is the thickness of a specimen(cm); A is the seepage area(cm2); t is the seepage time(s); His the water head(cm). Permeability coefficient K reflects the rate of water flowing in a material. The bigger K is, the faster the flow rate of water is and the weaker the impermeability is. The impermeability of some materials (such as concrete and mortar) can be expressed by impermeable level which is represented by the maximum water pressure resisted by materials. For example, P6, P8, PI0 and P12 reveal that the materials can resist 0.6MPa, 0.8MPa, 1 .OMPa, and 1.2MPa water pressure without water seepage. The impermeability of a material is related not only to its own hydrophilicity and hydrophobicity but also to its porosity and the characters of pores. The smaller the porosity is and the more the closed pores are, the stronger the impermeability is. Impermeable materials should be used in water conservancy projects and the underground projects usually affected by pressure water. Waterproof materials should be impermeable. 5. Frost Resistance Frost resistance is the property that a material can withstand several freeze-thaw cycles without being destroyed and its strength does not decrease seriously when the material absorbs water to saturation. It is expressed by frost-resistant level. Frost-resistant level is indicated by the biggest freeze-thaw-cycle times of a specimen that both its quality loss and strength reduction are within provisions when it is affected by freeze-thaw cycles in water saturation state, such as F25, F50, FlOO and F150. The reason for the freeze damage is a volume expansion (about 9%) caused by freeze of the water within the material’s pores. If a material’s’pores are full of water, its volume will expand and there will be a great tensile stress to pore walls when water is frozen into ice. If this stress exceeds the tensile strength, the pore walls will crack, the porosity will increase and the strength will decrease. The more the freeze-thaw cycles are, the greater damages there will be. And it will even cause the complete destruction of a material. There are internal and external factors affecting frost resistance of a material. The internal factors are the composition, structures, construction, porosity, the characteristics of pores, strength, water resistance, and so on. The external factors are the water filling degree within a material’s pores, freezing temperature, freezing speed, freeze-thaw frequency, and so on. 2.2.5 Thermal Properties 1. Thermal Conductivity The property of a material that indicates its ability to conduct heat is known as thermal conductivity. It is expressed by the coefficient of thermal conductivity A, which is defined by: (2.14) In this formula: A is the coeficient of thermal conductivity [ W/(m K)]; Q is the conducted heat quantity (J); d is the thickness of a material (m); A is the heat-transfer area (m2); t it the time for the heat transfer (s); r, - q is the temperature difference of the two materials (K). The smaller the value of A is, the better insulation the material has. The thermal conductivity of a material is related to its composition and structure, the porosity and the characteristics of its pores, the water content, temperature and other conditions. The coefficient of thermal conductivity of metallic materials is bigger than that of non-metallic materials. The bigger the porosity is, the higher the coefficient will be. Tiny and closed pores indicate low coefficient; big and open pores are easy to create convection heat, which indicates that the coefficient is high. The thermal conductivity coefficient of a material containing water or ice increases dramatically because the coefficient of water and ice is bigger than that of air. 2. Thermal Capacity Thermal capacity is the property of a material to absorb heat when it is heated and to release heat when it is cooled. It is defined by: Q=mxC(T, -q) (2.15) Or (2.16) In this formula: Q is the heat absorbed or released by a material (J); m is the mass of a material (g); C is the specific heat of a material [J/(g.K)]; r, - is the temperature difference before and after heating or cooling (K). The specific heat, also called specific heat capacity, is the measure of the heat energy that a substance in a unit quality absorbs or releases when the temperature increases or decreases 1K. The bigger the specific heat is, the better the stability of the indoor temperature will be. Thermal conductivity coefficient and specific heat should be known when thermal calculations are conducted to buildings. There are thermal conductivity coefficients and specific heat capacities of several common materials are listed in Table 2.2. 3. Thermal Deformation Thermal deformation is the property of a substance to expand with heat and contract with cold, customarily called temperature deformation. It is expressed by linear expansion coefficient a, which is defined by: AL LxAt a=- (2.17) The thermal deformation is detrimental to the civil engineering. For example, in a large-area or large-volume concrete project, temperature cracks can be caused if the expansion tensile stress is beyond the tensile strength of concrete; in a large-volume construction work, expansion joints are set to prevent the cracks caused by thermal deformation; and Petroleum asphalt will have brittle factures when temperature drops to a certain extent. 4. Flame Resistance Flame resistance is the property of a substance not to flame in case of contacting with fire in the air. Materials can be divided into non-flammable materials, fire-retardant materials and flammable materials according to their reaction to fire. (1) Non-flammable Materials Non-flammable materials are the ones that cannot be fired, carbonized or slightly burned when contacting with fire or high temperature in the air, such as brick, natural stone, concrete, mortar and metal. (2) Fire-retardant Materials Fire-retardant materials are the ones that are hard to be burned or carbonized when contacting with fire or high temperature in the air and stop burning or slightly flaming immediately when leaving fire, such as gypsum board, cement asbestos board, and lath and plaster. (3) Flammable Materials Flammable materials are the ones that are ignited or flame immediately when contacting with fire or high temperature in the air and continue to burn or slightly flame when leaving fire, such as plywood, fiberboard, wood and foil. In construction, the selection of non-flammable materials or fire-retardant materials depends on fire-resistant levels of buildings and the parts where materials are used. Fire prevention should be dealt with when flammable materials are used. 2.3 Mechanical Properties of Materials 2.3.1 Strength and Strength Grade of Materials 1. Strength of Materials Strength is the greatest stress that a substance can bear under external forces (loads) without destruction. According to different forms of external forces, the strength includes tensile strength, compressive strength, bend strength, shear strength and others. These kinds of strength are all determined by static test, known as the static strength. The static strength is tested by destructive experiments based on standard methods The strength of a material is related to its composition and structure. The strength will be different if the compositions of materials are the same but the structures are different. The bigger the porosity is, the smaller the strength will be. The strength is also concerned with testing conditions, such as the sample’s size, shape, surface and water content, loading speed, temperature of the test environment, the accuracy of test equipment, and the skill level of the operators. China has provided various standard test methods of material strength in order to make the results more accurate and comparable. These methods should be strictly followed when the strength is tested. 2. Strength Grade The strength can be divided into a number of different grades in accordance with the ultimate strength of most building materials, known as strength grade. The grades of brittle materials are mainly divided based on their compressive strength, such ordinary clay brick, stone, cement and concrete; and those of plastic materials and ductile materials depcnd on their tensile strength, such as steel. It is significant to classify the strength grades for mastering functions and choosing proper materials. 3. Specific Strength The specific strength is a material strength divided by its apparent density. It is an important index for measuring the high-strength and lightweight materials. The specific strength of ordinary concrete, low-carbon steel, and pine (along the grain) is respectively 0.012,0.053 and 0.069. The higher specific strength is, the higher strength and lighter weight the material is. It is important to select materials with high specific strength or improve the specific strength in order to lift buildings’ height, reduce structural weight and lower project costs. 2.3.2 Elasticity and Plasticity 1. Elasticity The elasticity is the property of a substance to deform with external forces and return to its original shape when the stress is removed. The deformation fully capable of restoration is called elastic deformation. Within the range of the elastic deformation, the ratio of the stress ( 0)to the strain ( E ) i s a constant (E) which is known as elastic modulus, namely, E= O/ E . The elastic modulus is a measure of the ability to resist deformation. The bigger E is, the more difficultly the material deforms. 2. Plasticity The plasticity describes the deformation of a material undergoing non-reversible changes of shape in response to external forces. This non-reversible deformation is called plastic deformation. Among building materials, there are no pure elastic materials. Some materials only have elastic deformation if the stress is not large, but plastic deformation will happen to them when the stress is beyond a limit, such as low-carbon steel. Under external forces, some materials will have elastic deformation and plastic deformation at the same time, but elastic deformation will disappear and plastic deformation still maintains when the stress is removed, such as concrete. 2.3.3 Brittleness and Toughness 1. Brittleness Brittleness describes the property of a material that fractures when subjected to stress but has a little tendency to deform before rupture. Brittle materials are characterized by little deformation, poor capacity to resist impact and vibration of load, high compressive strength, and low tensile strength. Most of inorganic non-metallic materials are brittle materials. 2. Toughness Impacted or vibrated by stress, a material is able to absorb much energy and deform greatly without rupture, which is known as toughness, also called impact toughness. Tough materials are characterized by great deformation, high tensile strength, and high compressive strength, such as construction steel, wood and rubber. Tough materials should be used in the structures bearing impact and vibration, such as roads, bridges, cranes and beams. 2.3.4 Hardness and Abrasive Resistance 1. Hardness Hardness refers to the property of a material to resist pressing-in or scratch of a sharp object. The materials of different kinds of hardness need various testing methods. The hardness of steel, wood and concrete is tested by pressing-in method. 2.4 Decorativeness of Materials Decorative materials are mainly used as facing for the inside and outside walls of buildings, columns, floors, and ceilings. They play decorative, protective, and other specific roles (such as insulation, moisture-resistance, fireproofing, sound-absorption, and sound-insulation). And decorative effects primarily depend on colors, textures and linetypes of the decorative materials. 1. Color Color is an important factor for the appearance of buildings, even impacting on the environment. All the buildings are ornamented by colors. Generally, white or light-colored elevation hue often gives people a clean and fresh feeling; dark-colored elevation appears dignified and stable; people usually feel enthusiastic, excited and warm when see red, orange, yellow and other warm colors indoors; and green, blue, violet and other cold colors can enable people to be peaceful, elegant and cool. As living conditions, climates, traditions, and customs are different, people have various feelings and evaluations on colors. 2. Texture Texture is a comprehensive impression given by the appearance of a material, such as roughness, unevenness, grain, patterns, and color differences. For example, the rugged surface of concrete or brick appears relatively massy and rough; and the surface of glass or aluminum alloy is smooth and delicate which seems light and vivid. Texture is connected with characteristics, 26 Building matcrials in civil engineering processing degrees, construction methods, and the types and elevation styles of buildings. 3. Linetype Linetype mainly refers to the decorative effect of the dividing joints and the convex lines ornamented on elevations. For example, plastering, granitic plaster, pebble dash, natural stone, and aerated concrete should be all latticed or divided, which will create various elevation effects and also prevent cracking. The size of dividing joints should be suitable for materials. Generally, the width should be 10-30mm, and the blocks of different sizes will create different decorative effects. 2.5 Durability of Materials In the process of usage, materials are able to resist the erosion from various media around and maintain their original properties, known as durability. In this process, materials are subjected to physical, chemical, biological and other natural factors besides various kinds of stress. Physical actions include wet-and-dry, temperature, and freeze-and-thaw changes, all of which will cause expansion and contraction of materials. And materials will be destroyed gradually by the long-term and repeated actions. Chemical actions are the erosion of acid, alkali and salt aqueous solution which can change the compositions of materials and destroy them, such as the chemical erosion of cement and the corrosion of steel. Biological action includes the destruction of fungi and insects which can molder or rot materials, such as the decomposition of wood and plant fiber. Durability is a comprehensive property of materials. Materials of different compositions and structures have different kinds of durability. For example, steel is easy to be corroded; stone, concrete, mortar, sintering ordinary clay brick, and other inorganic non-metallic materials mainly resist frost, wind, carbonization, wet-and-dry change, and other kinds of physical action; when contacting with water, some materials can be destroyed by chemical changes; and asphalt, plastic, rubber and other organic materials will be damaged due to aging. SOME OF THE MOST IMPORTANT PROPERTIES OF BUILDING MATERIALS ARE GROUPED AS FOLLOWS. Group Properties Physical Shape, Size, Density, Specific Gravity etc., Mechanical Strength, Elasticity, Plasticity, Hardness, Toughness, Ductility, Brittleness, Creep, Stiffness, Fatigue, Impact Strength etc., Thermal Thermal conductivity, Thermal resistivity, Thermal capacity etc., Chemical Corrosion resistance, Chemical composition, Acidity, Alkalinity etc., Optical Colour, Light reflection, Light transmission etc., Acoustical Sound absorption, Transmission and Reflection. Physiochemical Hygroscopicity, Shrinkage and Swell due to moisture changes Definitions • Density: It is defined as mass per unit volume. It is expressed as kg/m3. • Specific gravity: It is the ratio of density of a material to density of water. • Porosity: The term porosity is used to indicate the degree by which the volume of a material is occupied by pores. It is expressed as a ratio of volume of pores to that of the specimen. • Strength: Strength of a material has been defined as its ability to resist the action of an external force without breaking. • Elasticity: It is the property of a material which enables it to regain its original shape and size after the removal of external load. • Plasticity: It is the property of the material which enables the formation of permanent deformation. • Hardness: It is the property of the material which enables it to resist abrasion, indentation, machining and scratching. • Ductility: It is the property of a material which enables it to be drawn out or elongated to an appreciable extent before rupture occurs. • Brittleness: It is the property of a material, which is opposite to ductility. Material, having very little property of deformation, either elastic or plastic is called Brittle. • Creep: It is the property of the material which enables it under constant load to deform slowly but progressively over a certain period. • Stiffness: It is the property of a material which enables it to resist deformation. • Fatigue: The term fatigue is generally referred to the effect of cyclically repeated stress. A material has a tendency to fail at lesser stress level when subjected to repeated loading. • Impact strength: The impact strength of a material is the quantity of work required to cause its failure per its unit volume. It thus indicates the toughness of a material. • Toughness: It is the property of a material which enables it to be twisted, bent or stretched under a high stress before rupture. • Thermal Conductivity: It is the property of a material which allows conduction of heat through its body. It is defined as the amount of heat in kilocalories that will flow through unit area of the material with unit thickness in unit time when difference of temperature on its faces is also unity. • Corrosion Resistance: It is the property of a material to withstand the action of acids, alkalis gases etc., which tend to corrode (or oxidize).

DEVELOPMENT PLANS AND ITS IMPLICTIONS FOR DEMOCRACY

DEVELOPMENT PLANS AND ITS IMPLICTIONS FOR DEMOCRACY * Bashiru Salawu, Abubakar Y. Muhammed. *Deborah S. Adekeye & Isiaka S. Onimajesin. Introduction Theoretically, development plans of any sort involve deliberate efforts on the part of government to speed up the process of social and economic development of a country. In some countries, such as the former Soviet Union with a socialist ideology, the development plan efforts were usually found to be rewarding, as the government was able to intervene directly and extensively in the lives of the people (Ogunjimi, 1997:97). Similarly, in other countries like the mixed advanced Western economies and many developing countries with a purely capitalist ideology, the economy is structured in such a way that though the interventionist role of the government is usually relatively small, there is always emphasis on the provision of a policy framework (i.e through development plans) within which the economy and other sectors operate. What this means is that, in all areas of the economy, the need for a general framework in form of development plans cannot be overemphasized. The essence of planning by government, therefore, is that it cloud make a conscious choice regarding the rate and direction of growth. The most logical interpretation of this is that the relative rates at which heavy industry, light industry, agricultural improvement, transport and commerce, housing and the like are to be pursued become a matter of conscious policy (Ayinla, 1998:21). It is therefore reasonable to say here that, through a national comprehensive plan, it will be possible to make rational decisions to achieve deliberate, consistent and well-balanced action towards socio-economic development and good governance. The successful implementation of many projects before and after independence and up to a point in the history of Nigeria as a nation was due substantially to the strategy of pursuing economic and social development through periodic national development plans. The history of development plans in Nigeria can be traced to the colonial era when the British Colonial Office mandated the colonies to prepare development plans for the disbursement of the Colonial Development and Welfare Funds in 1940. Thereafter, a body known as the National Economic Council was set up in 1955 to co-ordinate the nation’s growth in line with the recommendation of the World Bank Mission to Nigeria. This eventually led to the preparation of a National Development Plan for Nigeria in 1959. The main objective of the 1959 Development Plan was the achievement and maintenance of the highest possible rate of increase in the standard of living and the creation of necessary conditions to this end. Since 1960 therefore, Nigeria has formulated and launched development plans which had made it possible for governments to articulate policies in the following areas: equitable distribution of income; increase in employment opportunities; improved social services; and efficient allocation of available resources to eliminate waste (Ayinla, 1998:41). Preparing and implementing development plans thus became one of the ways by which successive governments in Nigeria before and after the country’s independence have been trying to better the socio-economic and political conditions of Nigerian citizens. This is because the policies contained in such development plans touch on the various aspects of the society, which include the political, economic, educational, social and agricultural sectors (Olaniyi, 1998:104). Good as this may sound, in 1986, there was a gradual movement towards a cessation of national development plans in Nigeria. It is important to note that this has made the business of governance haphazard in the country. It is against this background that this paper sets out to examine the implications of neglecting development plans in Nigeria. In order to achieve this objective, the paper covers the following sub-areas: the history of development plans in Nigeria; the journey towards neglecting development plans in Nigeria; the implications of cessation of development plans on the mandate of democracy; and summary and recommendations. The History of Development Plans in Nigeria. The history of conscious planning for development in Nigeria can be traced to the colonial days. To be specific, it has its origin in 1946 when the colonial government introduced what it tagged “Ten Year Plan of Development and Welfare for Nigeria”. This was under the Colonial Development and Welfare Fund. Under this historic Development Plan, a total planned expenditure of an equivalent of N110 million for a period of ten years was earmarked for the period starting from April 1, 1946 to March 31, 1956 (Ogunjimi, 1997:97). Analyzing the focus of the ten-year Development Plan, Ayo (1988:1) observes that the plan focused on building a transport and communication system, while little provision was made for industrial development. He notes further that this first development plan was also selective in its focus on agriculture, as attention was concentrated on a limited range of cash crops, which include cocoa, palm products, cotton, groundnut and timber. An important conclusion which one can draw from the analysis given by Ayo is that the Colonial Development Plan for Nigeria was meant to serve the interest of the colonial masters rather than that of the colony (i.e. Nigeria). This foreign-centered development plan, however, did not run its full term because, by 1950, the inappropriateness of charting development over a period as long as ten years in a country experiencing rapid structural changes had become evident. Consequently, a decision was taken to break the plan period into two five-year sub-periods and to formulate a new plan for the sub-period 1950-1956. However, the introduction of a federal system of government affected this revision as each of the regional governments became autonomous and adopted different economic policies. The consequence of this, as can be noted from the work of Olaniyi (1998:106), the launching of a five-year development plan for the period 1955-1960 to be implemented by the Federal Government for itself. The plans reviewed above constitute the pre-independence development plans. Whatever their weakness, the fact remains that they constitute the beginning of the practice of development planning in Nigeria. Since independence in 1960, Nigeria has formulated and launched other development plans, which, of course, were more comprehensive than the pre-independence plans. They were comprehensive because such plans were conceived and formulated within the framework of improved system of national accounts. Besides, they covered the operations of both the public and private sectors of the economy; and, more importantly, they had their projects related to a number of well-articulated overall economic targets. Therefore, between 1960 and 1985, there were four development plans in Nigeria which were referred to as the First, Second, Third and Fourth National Development Plans. Each of these development plans had its own focus and well-articulated objectives which had far-reaching effects on the nation’s developmental aspirations. The First National Development Plan was launched in April 1962 and was to cover a period of six years (1962-68). Under this plan, a total investment expenditure of about N2.132 billion was proposed. Out of this, public-sector investment was expected to be about N1.352 billion, while the remaining investment expenditure of N780 million was to be undertaken by the private sector. The full implementation of this development plan was however interrupted by two major political events, namely, the military intervention in 1966 and the 1967-70 civil war. Consequently, the period of the plan was extended to March 31, 1970. These major interruptions notwithstanding, both the Federal Government and regional governments recorded a number of landmark achievements during the development plan period. During the crisis period, the Federal Government alone successfully executed projects like the Oil Refinery in Port Harcourt, the Paper Mill, the Sugar Mill and the Niger Dam (in Jebba and Bacita respectively), the Niger Bridge, and ports’ extension, while it also constructed a number of trunk ‘A’ roads. It is interesting to note that it was also during this period that the first-generation universities were established: Ibadan and Lagos by the Federal Government, Ahamdu Bello University by the Northern Nigerian Government , University of Nigeria Nsukka (UNN) by the Eastern Nigerian Government and the University of Ife (now known as the Obafemi Awolo University) by the Western Nigerian Government. The federal and regional governments were able to achieve this much in spite of the crisis because, during the period, the annual capital budgets operated within the development plan framework. They were employed as the main instrument of control and allocation of development resources (Ogunjimi, 1997:98). This was in itself made possible by the existence of a development plan which provided guidelines for meaningful and co-coordinated development during the plan period despite two political crises. General Yakubu Gowon launched the Second National Development Plan in 1970 on behalf of the Federal Government and the government of the then twelve states of the federation. It was launched shortly after the end of the war. Because it was a post-war development plan, its focus was on the reconstruction of a war-battered economy and the promotion of economic and social development in the new Nigeria. What this means, according to Olaniyi (1988:107), is that the philosophy of the plan was consequently influenced by the exigencies of the war, which include the building of a united, strong and self-reliant nation; a great and dynamic economy; a just egalitarian society; a land of bright and full opportunities for all citizens; and a free and democratic society. Like the First National Development Plan, the Second National Development Plan also recorded a number of major projects, which were successfully executed by both the federal and state governments. Such projects include the successful construction of many federal roads; the successful take-off of the National Youth Service Corps scheme; the introduction of federal scholarship and loan schemes for Nigerian students, etc. General Gowon also launched the Third National Development Plan on behalf of all governments in the country. The plan covered a five-year period from April 1975 to March 1980. Ayinla (1998:86) describes this plan as a watershed in the evolution of economic planning in Nigeria. It was a unique development plan because, apart from its huge initial investment of about N30 billion (which was later revised to N43.3 billion), extensive consultations with the private sector of the economy were made in the course of its preparation. The cardinal objectives of this plan were also part of its uniqueness. Such objectives include increase in per capital income during the plan period; more even distribution of income; reduction inn the level of unemployment; diversification of the economy; balanced development; and indigenization of economic activities. As laudable as the objectives of this development plan were, the implementation was adversely affected by the change of government in July 1975, barely three months after the plan was launched. In particular, the change of government led to a reappraisal of some of the cardinal objectives as contained in the plan. Here, more emphasis was placed on those projects which were thought to have direct effects on the living standard of the common man. Sectors that were thus given priority included agriculture, water supply, housing and health (Olaniyi, 1998:108). The Fourth National Development Plan, (1981-85) was launched by President Shehu Shagari in 1981 on behalf of the Federal Government and the governments of the then nineteen states of the federal. This was the first plan to be formulated by a democratically elected government under a new constitution based on the presidential system of government. As observed by Ogunjimi (1997:100), the plan was intended to further the process of establishing a solid base for the long-term economic and social development of Nigeria. Unlike the previous development plans, the fourth plan was the first in which the local governments were made to participate at two levels. One, they participated at the level of preparation, and two, they were allowed to have their own separate programmes under the plan. The capital investment target was N82.2 billion shared between the public and private sectors with the former putting in about N70.5 billion, while the latter put in the balance of N11.7 billion. The Fourth Development Plan was a gain affected by the change of government in 1983 and by yet another change in 1985. These two changes seriously disrupted the implementation of the programmes of the plan and, consequently, the performance of the economy during the fourth plan period was generally poor. Whatever the case (success or failure), it is interesting to note that between 1945 and 1986, the concept of development planning was common: planning for social and economic development in Nigeria. Beyond the end of this period, this concept gradually faded away and has now become a thing of the past. Development Plans in Nigeria It is important to note the real journey towards neglecting the tradition of development planning in Nigeria started with the Babangida administration. In response to the problems encountered during the Fourth Development Plan period, the Babangida administration suspended in October 1988 the idea of a five-year development plan, which had hitherto almost become a well-established traditions. At the end Fourth Development Plan in December 1985, a one-year economic emergency programme was instituted in 1986 probably to solve some obvious economic problems left behind by the Shagari administration. Interestingly, this was later absorbed by an economic policy christened the Structural Adjustment Programme (SPA). According to the apologist of SAP, the programme was introduced in 1986 for the economy to have a foundation before any meaningful planning could be done. The Babaginda administration then believed that because the economy was largely indebted, the basis for planning was eroded. The government therefore wanted to do away with the already practiced medium-term planning and consequently introduced a perspective known as rolling plan. Based on this, the government decided on a 20-year perspective plan for the period 1989-2008. According to the philosophy of this rolling plan, the first phase of the perspective plan would constitute the Fifth National Development Plan. With this structural change of policy, the five-year planning model was replaced with a three-year rolling plan to be operated along with a 12 to 20 year perspective plan and the normal operational annual budgets. This plan become operational with the 1989 budget and it provided the foundation for the three-year rolling plan (1989-90-91). In order to effectively executive this programme, some fundamental reforms was the merging of budgetary and planning functions with the sole objective of minimizing conflict between the two (Ogunjimi, 1997:101; Ayinla, 1998:23; Ilesanmi, 2000:6). According to the architects of this rolling plan programme, it was considered to be more suitable for an economy facing uncertainty and rapid change. The rolling plan was meant to be revised at the each end of each year, at which point estimates, targets and project were added for an additional year. What this means is that planner revised the 1990-92 three-year rolling plan at the end of 1990, issuing a new plan for 1991-93. In effect, a plan is renewed at the end of each year, but the number of years remains the same as the plan rolls forward. According to Ihonvbere (1991), the objectives of the rolling plan were to reduce inflation and exchange rate instability, maintain infrastructure, achieve agricultural self-sufficiency, and reduce the burden of structural adjustment on the most vulnerable groups. In the same way that the tradition of five-year development plan was jettisoned by the Babangida administration, the idea of rolling plan was also shelved in 1996 by General Sani Abacha for Vision 2010, which was launched on September 18, 1996. The programme was to systematically improve the quality of life of Nigerians in fourtheen years (Ogunjimi, 1997:107). Although not directly related to the transition programme, the work of Vision 2010, a 250-member committee of private-sector representatives, government ministries, academics, journalists, traditional rulers, trade union leaders and foreign businessmen, among others, inaugurated by General Abacha on November 27, 1996, was similarly intended to move the country forward. The committee was chaired by Chief Ernest Shonekan, who headed a short-lived Interim National Government in 1993 before Abacha seized power (Jukwey, 1996). Vision 2010 submitted its final report to General Abacha on September 30, 1997. The committee reportedly recommended “large-scale deregulation of the Nigerian economy”, the release of political detainees and rigorous compliance with the transition programme (Jukwey). In his October 1, 1997 National Day address, Abacha promised to introduce the measures required to begin the programme’s implementation immediately, in the firm belief that successive administrations will carry it to a successful conclusion with the support of Nigerian people and friends of the nation (National Day Address, 1997). The fear of Vission 2010 members that their recommendations would not be implemented were justified. Funds for the capital projects budgeted for the first half of 1997 were only released in September, bringing investment in infrastructure and the economy in general to a virtual halt. Massive lay-off of federal and states’ employees throughout the country had caused significant hardship. Pervasive of “failed bank” and “failed contract” tribunals, which seemed to have been designed to target potential opposition supporters rather than crack down on “illegal deals”. From our discussion so far, it can be seen that the military intervention in 1966 and its subsequent prolonged rule in Nigeria become the genesis of truncating the process of adhering to national development planning as a strategy for economic and social development (Fika, 2004). What the nation has inherited in the absence of well-articulated development plans are budget frauds, road contract scandals, oil scams and unchallenged or unchecked high level of financial corruption at all level government in Nigeria. It is, however, imperative to note here that since the re-commencement of democratic government on May 29, 1999; the administration of President Olusegun Obasanjo has begun a series of bold economic and political reforms to put the country back on a sound economic and political footing. The Implications for Democracy of Cessation of Development Plan A democratic dispensation is considered as being so efficacious in pushing the frontiers of development that some authorities see it as being coterminous with government (Oshionebo, 2004:305). In this regard, Boeninger (1991) simply defines governance as good government of society which guides a country along a course leading to a desired goal, in thus case, development. Development, here, is construed to mean equity, social justice, and the exercise of basic human rights. The point to note, however, is that this perspective acknowledges that democracy has a moral purpose and rationale. This means that the well-being of society is dependent. not only upon the correctness and rationality of government policies or plans but also on public confidence that previously settled methods, procedures and rules of politics and government will not be violated or arbitrarily changed but in fact preserved (Obadan, Oshionebo and Uga, 2002). The British Council (1993) regards democracy as symbolizing “good government”. It sees government as simply the framework of institutions and functionaries or officials that the state uses in running its affairs. A good government is regarded as good if it provides a responsive governmental and state administrative framework that facilitates good governance. Although good governance and economic development must be longer-term goal than good government, the former will be achievable without the latter. Therefore, good government would, in practice, mean: (i) a legitimate and representative government following democratic elections. (ii) an accountable administration and a responsive government characterized by free-flowing information, separation of powers, effective internal and external auditing, low levels of corruption and nepotism, competent officials, realistic policies and low defence expenditure. (iii) governmental respect for human rights, as indicated by freedom of religion and movement, impartial and accessible criminal justice system, and the absence of arbitrary government power (Oshionebo, 2004:306). The essence of democracy, therefore, is to provide an organizational platform to tap the potential endowments of society so that opportunities will be generated for an all-round development (Oshionebo, 2003). For a democratic dispensation to perform competently enough to be adjudged “a good, honest government” (Galbraith, 1999) which is essentially “a pivot for responding to citizen expectations” (Cohen, 1995), the government must exercise state power and authority in the context of what Oshionebo (2002) describes as the institution that facilities effective performance appraisal of the policies, programmes and activities of government. Deriving from the foregoing, development plans are indispensable in good governance. As a result, it is logical to assert that the negligence of development plans in Nigeria, as a result of prolonged military intervention, is responsible for the various developmental problems which the country has experienced. Nigeria’s development reports since independence eloquently point out the link between good governance and societal development. According to these reports, Nigeria is abundantly blessed with enormous human and natural resources that should translate to a decent standard of living. With a population of over 120 million, Nigeria is the most populous country in African and the eleventh in the world (Oshionebo, 2004:304). In spite of these blessings, the poor performance of the Nigerian economy in many sectors is very evident. The real sector (manufacturing and agriculture) is performing rather poorly. While the country still imports a lot of the agricultural produce for consumption, the capacity utilization in industry is around 400/0. The country’s per capita income which was as high as $1,281.4 in 1980, declined continuously to its lowest level of $240.0 in 1992; it stood at around $250.0 in 1995 and at $270.0 in 1997; roughly the same figure as in 1972 (Obadan and Odusola 1999). That figure is still below $300 as at today. The economy may be experiencing some gains but these are only moderate, particularly given the resource disbursements on the country’s development efforts. As we have seen, Nigeria’s development indices point to a low rate of economic growth, low capacity utilization in the industrial sector, poorly performing utilities/infrastructure and the attendant increase in operating costs, among others. The Nigerian economy is therefore embattled on all fronts and with crises of ramifying description, including energy crisis, education crisis, unemployment crisis, food crisis, transportation crisis, debt crisis and, of course, the crisis of economic management (Oshionebo, 2004:304). The overall consequence of the macroeconomic problems is the deplorable poverty profile of Nigerians. Indeed, the poverty profile of Nigerians appears to be worsening. The UNDP Human Development Report for 2001 places Nigeria at No. 148 out of the 173 countries surveyed. The situation was marginally compared with the 2003 report, which puts Nigeria at 152 among the 175 countries covered in the survey. Official statistics indicated that the national incidence of poverty has remarkably risen from a modest level of 15 percent in 1960 to 28 percent in 1980. It rose further to 46 percent in 1985 and 66 percent in 1996. As at 2001, it was estimated to stand at over 70 percnet (FRN, 2001 and Obadan, 2001). These predicaments are no doubt manifestations of neglecting the practice of having development plans, which denies the country the required blueprints for development. The present administration has made concerted efforts at redressing the various crises and reviving the economy, but the fact remains that in the year 2000, the economy “neither improved nor deteriorated significantly but was static and still low-income, low-growth, with distortions in several areas”. Indeed, President Olusegun Obasanjo made reference to the static nature of the economy while presenting the 2001 Appropriation Bill to the National Assembly in November 2000 when he started, “for this government and most Nigerians, our hard-won democracy is yet to translate into significant improvements in our lives (Taiwo, 2001). What this means is that the level of development in Nigeria today does not match the level of resources available. This is a result of a high level of corruption, which lack of adequate resource utilization for development has made possible. No society can achieve anything near its full potential if it allow corruption to become a full-blown cancer as it has been in Nigeria. With the jettisoning of development plans, which today remains one of the greatest tragedies occasioned by military rule, corruption was allowed to grow really unchecked. The rules and regulations for doing official business, which development plans entail, died. Consequently, cynicism, contempt for and cause of integrity pervade every level of the Nigerian bureaucracy, which used to be the vehicle for the execution of development plans in the past. Budgets, which are not tailored towards any development targets, are read without execution. This has provided an avenue for siphoning public funds by those in power. The implication of this is that the practice of reading the annual budget without anything to show for it has eroded public trust in government and undermined the rule of law. It has also weakened the effectiveness of governance at all levels. More importantly, it has hindered economic growth as the nation’s resources meant for development are plundered in an ineffective manner. Summary and Recommendations In summary, this paper has traced the history of development planning in Nigeria to the colonial era when the British Colonial Office mandated the colonies to prepare development plans for the disbursement of the Colonial Development and Welfare Funds in 1940. The paper also reported that the setting up of a body known as the National Economic Council thereafter, to co-ordinate the nation’s economic growth in line with the recommendations of the World Bank Mission to Nigeria in 1955, eventually led to the preparation of a National Development Plan for Nigeria in 1959. The main objective of the 1959 Development Plan, as discussed in this paper, was the achievement and maintenance of the highest possible rate of increase in the standard of living as well as creating the required conditions for the achievement of the above-stated objective. The objectives of development plans that later followed the 1959 plan were the same. Indeed, with the various plans, the country was able to articulate policies that directly touched on the lives of common people in the country. From our discussion, it has been shown that at a point around 1986, there began some signs of inconsistency in the implementation of development plans, which ultimately led to a total abandonment of the tradition of having development plans. This has been found to be one of the major factors militating against good governance in Nigeria, the business of governance began to be haphazardly conducted, while the quality of life began to decline. The paper has reported that as a result of the cessation of development plans in Nigeria, the country has suffered some negative consequences among which are deplorable poverty profile and unchecked high level of corruption. The implication of all these is hindrance of economic growth because the country’s resources, which are to be used for development, are being plundered. To remedy the negative consequences, it is hereby recommended that the present democratic government should go back to the old practice of formulating national and state budgets in the context of comprehensive development plans. To this end, there is the need for the following institution to be established or, where they are already in existence, they must be strengthened. First is the establishment of a National Council on Development Plans. This council, to be chaired by the President, should, among other things: • supervise the implementation of national development plans; • ensure harmonization of existing policy measures with the future development objectives and strategies; • ensure effective and consistent dissemination of the development plan vision to institutions and the wider public; and • co-ordinate and monitor all inter-sectoral related activities spanning rural development, poverty alleviation, water supply, urban and rural environmental sanitation, health, education, agriculture, control of population growth, electricity supply, communications, transportation, etc. Seondly, to ensured the success of the development plans in Nigeria, corruption must be eliminated. Consequently, it is suggested that all laws on corruption should be strengthened. Institutions such as the Independent Corrupt Practices and Other Related Offences’ Commission (ICPC) and Economic and Financial Crime Commission (EFCC) should be given more support by the government so that the implementation of development plans at any state will be free of corruption. Finally, for development plans to lead to good governance, the rules and regulations governing the conduct of government activities must be widely known and understood. In order words, there is the need to develop the culture of transparency in the running of government as an enterprise. To this end, the bureaucratic processes in Nigeria should be developed to facilitate effective governance. This can be done by removing the bureaucratic red tape, which often undermines good governance via policy implementation as embedded in development plans

reference on bovine

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